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filmaga. 


Original  copiat  in  printad  papar  covart  ara  fllmad 
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othar  original  copiaa  ara  fiimad  baginning  on  tha 
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tion,  and  anding  on  tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad 
or  iiluatratad  imprattion. 


Lat  txtmplairaa  originaux  dont  la  couvartura  an 
papiar  att  imprimia  tont  filmAt  tn  commtnpant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  par  la 
darniira  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'imprattion  ou  d'illuttration,  toit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  salon  la  eas.  Tous  las  autras  axamplairas 
originaux  tont  fiimit  an  commandant  par  la 
pramitra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'imprattion  ou  d'illuttration  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  darniira  paga  qui  comporta  una  talla 
amprainta. 


Tha  latt  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
thall  contain  tha  tymbol  — ^  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  tymbol  ▼  (moaning  "END"), 
whiehavar  appiiat. 


Un  dat  tymbolat  tuivantt  apparaitra  tur  la 
darniira  imaga  da  chaqua  microficha.  talon  la 
cat:  It  tymbola  — »•  tignifia  "A  SUIVRE".  la 
tymbolt  y  tignifia  "FIN". 


Mapa.  platat.  chartt.  ate.  may  ba  fiimad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratiot.  Thota  too  larga  to  bo 
antiraly  includad  in  ona  axpotura  ara  fiimad 
baginning  in  tha  uppar  laft  hand  cornar,  laft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  at  many  framat  at 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagramt  illuatrata  tha 
mathod: 


Lat  cartat.  planchat.  tablaaux.  ate,  pauvant  itra 
filmit  i  dtt  taux  da  reduction  diffirants. 
Lortqut  It  documant  att  trop  grand  pour  itra 
raproduit  an  un  taul  clichi.  il  att  film*  i  partir 
da  I'angla  tupiriaur  gaucha,  da  gaucha  i  droite. 
at  da  haut  an  bat,  an  pranant  la  nombre 
d'imagat  nAcattaira.  Lat  diagrammat  tuivantt 
illuttrant  la  mithoda. 


1  2  3 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

MICtOCOPY   RiSOlUTION   TIST  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 


I.I 


15.0 


m^M       Hlj 


3.2 

3.6 

4.0 


2.5 
2.2 

2.0 


1.8 


1.25 


1.6 


^  /APPLIED  IM/1GE     Inc 

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THE  IDEA  OF 
THE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 


THE  MACMILLAN  CX)MPANY 

mw  YOWt  •  ■OfTOM  •  CHICAGO  •  DAU 
ATLANTA  •  tAM  FMMCUCO 

MACMILLAN  fc  CO.,  Limithd 

LONOOM  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MBLBOUIUni 

THK  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TOKOMTO 


THE  IDEA  OF 
THE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 


BY 


GEORG   KERSCHENSTEINER 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN 
■Y 

RUDOLF  PINTNER,  M.A..  Ph.D. 


THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

All  rigbtt  rntrvti 


CorvuGHT,  1913, 
Bv  THE  MACMILLAM  COMPANY. 

S«t  up  uid  aUctfotyptd.    PubUalMd  Jum,  1913. 


Kottoooti  9mM 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  it  Smitii  COt 

Norwood,  Mms.,  U.S.A. 


n-/>fn 


TRANSLATOR'S    NOTE 

THE  present  work  of  C  <;  Kerschen- 
steiner  should  be  extremely  acceptable 
to  the  educational  world  at  this  time.  It  is 
a  concise  and  definite  statement  as  to  what 
is  meant  by  industrial  education.  He  was 
prompted  to  write  it  because  of  the  danger 
of  misunderstanding  the  real  meaning  of  in- 
dustrial education  both  on  the  part  of  its 
opponents  and  on  the  part  of  its  supporters. 
We  have  need  in  America  of  being  reminded 
once  again  of  the  ideal  that  industrial  edu- 
cation seeks  to  realize. 

The  Appendix  applies  of  course  to  work 
in  Germany  and  should  not  be  taken  as  a 
model  for  this  country.  It  is  nevertheless 
of  great  interest,  showing  what  has  beei; 
achieved  with  firs-grade  ^hiWre  in  Munich, 
and  it  is  for  that  reason  that  ]  nave  retained 
it  in  the  English  translation. 

RUDOLF   PINTNE         «      .  Ph.D. 

ToLXDO,  Ohio, 

Noyember,  I9i». 


14163 


PREFACE 


ON  January  12,  1908,  I  was  invited  by 
the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Canton 
of  7i  *"h  to  give  an  address  in  St.  Peter's 
CiTii  :p  in  Zurich  on  the  occasion  of  the 
ceieoration  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
second  anniversary 'of  Heinrich  Pestalozzi's 
birthday.  I  chose  as  my  subject  "The 
School  of  the  Future  in  the  Spirit  of  Pes- 
talozzi,"  and  I  called  this  school  an  indus- 
trial school.  What  I  had  in  my  mind  at 
that  time  I  put  in  the  form  of  a  sermon,  as 
suitable  to  the  purpose  of  the  hour  and  to 
the  sacredness  of  the  place.  At  that  time 
I  was  not  concerned  with  formulating  logi- 
cally my  ideas,  but  rather  with  touching  the 
hearts  of  my  hearers  and  inspiring  them  with 
an  old,  but  still  unattained  ideal. 

It  is  four  years  ago  since  that  took  place. 
The  expression  "  industrial  school,"  which  is 
older  than  the  works  of  Pestalozzi,  has  sii  ^e 


Vlll 


Preface 


that  day  become  a  battle-cry.  It  was  as  if  a 
sudden  light  had  been  shed  upon  the  weak 
spot  in  our  public  school  system,  including 
our  elementary  and  high  schools  —  a  weak- 
ness that  had  been  for  a  long  time  more  or 
less  clearly  felt.  But  that  was  only  an  illu- 
sion. For  the  numerous  pedagogical  mis- 
takes and  contortions  that  that  battle-cry 
brought  forth  in  theory  and  in  practice 
showed  only  too  clearly  how  superficially  and 
mechanically  the  spirit  of  the  industrial  school 
had  been  understood.  It  showed,  too,  how 
many  ideas,  vague  and  of  doubtful  value, 
began  to  cluster  round  the  idea  of  an  indus- 
trial school.  I  need  only  to  refer  here  to 
the  almost  universal  confusion  of  manual 
and  intellectual  work,  or  again  to  the  effort 
towards  concentration,  based  upon  a  false  psy- 
chology, which  proposes  to  divide  up  into 
a  thousand  pieces  certain  naturally  united 
departments  of  learning,  in  order  to  present 
them  to  the  student  in  a  purely  arbitrary 
connection  without  any  real  intellectual  com- 
bining factor,  "  quo  omnis  doctrina  ingeniarum 


Preface 


IX 


et  humanarum  artium  coniinetur."     (Cicero, 
«De  Orat.,"  Ill,  6.  21.) 

To  try  to  correct  these  mistakes  and  end 
these  contortions,  the  "  Bund  fur  Schulre- 
form"  chose  the  vocational  school,  as  sub- 
ject for  discussion,  at  its  meeting  in  Dresden 
on  October  6-8,  191 1,  and  invited  Superin- 
tendent Gaudig  and  myself  to  read  papers  on 
the  idea  of  the  vocational  school.  These 
papers  were  to  be  followed  by  a  free  discus- 
sion, and  it  was  hoped  that  this  would  help 
in  making  the  idea  clear  and  unambiguous. 
I  accepted  the  invitation  gladly,  for  it  gave 
me  an  opportunity  to  give  scientific  expres- 
sion in  a  carefully  prepared  paper  to  thoughts 
which  have  been  in  my  mind  for  m^ny,  many 
years. 

This  work  I  am  now  publishing,  and  I 
hope  that  it  will  protect  the  development  of 
our  public  schools,  both  elementary  and  high, 
from  committing  errors  which  would  be  far 
more  dangerous  than  the  sins  of  the  old 
"  book  school."  This  present  work  of  mine 
is  much  longer  and  much  more  logical  than 


X  Preface 

my  speech  of  the  I2th  of  February,  1908, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  two  will  show  that 
here  I  give  examples  of  what  I  mean,  where 
formerly  I  merely  laid  down  the  principle. 

I  was  surprised  that  my  speech  of  the  1 2th 
of  February,  1908,  gave  occasion  to  a  writer 
to  claim  for  himself  priority  in  this  idea  of 
a  vocational  school.  Since  I  have  never 
claimed  the  originality  of  this  idea,  I  need 
give  no  answer.  But  I  should  like  to  state 
that  the  idea  of  a  vocational  school  is  as 
old  as  the  theory  of  education.  (Cf.  Plato, 
"Leges,"  pp.  819  ff.y  Burnet's  Oxford  Edi- 
tion.) Now  ideas  only  become  alive  when 
they  have  been  tested  as  to  the  possibility 
of  their  realization,  by  thinking  them  out 
logically  to  their  consequences,  and  by  suit- 
ing them  to  the  forms  of  our  present-day 
existence. 

GEORG  KERCHENSTEINER. 


MvNicH,  December,  191 1. 


CONTENTS 


CBAPIKK 

I.    The   National   Purpose   and  the 
Duties  of  the  Public  Schools 
II.    The  First  Duty  —  Vocational  Ed- 
ucation       

III.  The  Second  and  Third  Duties  of 

THE  Public  Schools  . 

IV.  The  Methods  of  the   Industrial 

School        .        .        •        •        • 
V.    The  Technical  Teacher  and  Pro- 
fessional Industrial  Instruc- 
tion     

VI.    Summary  and  Conclusion 

APPENDIX :  An  Example  of  Industrial 
Training  in  the  Elementary 
Schools  of  Munich  . 


PAGE 


21 

34 
46 


61 
76 


89 


Idea    of   the    Industrial 
School 


CHAPTER  I 

The  National  Purpose  and  the  Duties 
of  the  Public  Schools 

TOWARDS  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  And  during  the 
nineteenth  century  the  public  elementary 
school  in  Germany  and  in  other  countries 
became  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the 
national  or  state  administration  —  an 
instrument  by  means  of  which  the  state 
seeks  to  attain  certain  purposes  or  ends. 
Compulsory  education  is  one  legal  ex- 
pression of  this  control  of  the  aim  of  the 
schoc   '  y  the  state. 

No.,  as  long  as  we  only  pay  attention 
to  the  aims  and  tasks  of  any  existing 


2       Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

•^tate  as  it  exists  at  present,  our  scientific 
pedagogy  will  not  be  able  to  give  us  any 
satisfactory  solution  of  educational  prob- 
lems. But  as  soon  as  we  regard  the  state 
as  a  product  of  evolution,  as  a  community 
of  people  organizing  for  more  and  more 
useful  purposes,  a  community  that  keeps 
trying  by  means  of  the  activity  of  its 
members  to  make  the  way  easier  for  an 
unhindered  development  of  moral  per- 
sonality, a  community  that  is  moving 
along  in  the  direction  of  such  an  ideal 
state  as  the  science  of  ethics  would 
sketch  for  us  —  if  such  is  our  idea  of  the 
state,  then  the  scientific  formulation  of 
the  aim  of  the  elementary  school  follows 
naturally  from  a  scientific  formulation 
of  the  aim  of  the  state. 

A  state  that  embodies  moral  ideals  in 
its  aims  and  institutions  is  the  highest 
outward  ethical  good.  For  this  is,  as 
Locke,  Hobbes  and  Spinoza  have  shown, 
a  prerequisite  in  order  that  the  individual 
may   attain   his   highest   inward  ethical 


Purpose  and  Duties  3 

good,  in  order  that  he  may  develop  the 
real  character  of  the  free  ethical  personal- 
ity. Why,  it  is  often  just  in  working 
for  the  realization  of  such  a  national 
ideal  that  the  individual  finds  not  only 
a  glorious  and  worthy  occupation,  but 
also  a  valuable  opportunity  to  work  out 
his  own  ethical  perfection.  This  con- 
ception of  the  state  is  of  course  an  ideal. 
To-day  most  states  are  very  far  frjm  this 
ideal.  They  may  be  at  times  e  /en  a  hin- 
drance cO  the  development  of  pe>  nal 
ethical  freedom.  Very  often  a  state  may 
appear  to  the  individual  in  its  clutches 
to  be  the  greatest  evil  rather  than  the 
greatest  good.  In  his  posthumous  work 
"  Weltgeschichtliche  Betrachtungen," 
even  such  a  clever  man  as  Jakob  Burck- 
hardt  allowed  himself  to  sink  to  this 
statement,  "The  state  is  the  greatest 
evil."  Now  the  question  is.  Must  this 
be  so  ?  And  the  answer  is  that  we  see 
mankind  forever  building  up  new  and 
better  states  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  ones. 


•f 


4      Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

Men  are  convinced  that  they  are  ever 
approaching  nearer  to  the  ideal  of  the 
state,  as  the  safest  retreat  for  ethical 
freedom,  as  the  best  guarantee  for  the 
inner  and  outer  welfare  of  the  individual. 
We  firmly  believe  that  history  shows  us 
a  grar^ual  evolution  of  the  state  along 
the  lines  of  true  culture  and  justice. 

This  raises  the  question  as  to  whether 
there  are  not  other  outward  ethical  goods 
as  important  as  that  of  the  state.     Now 
if  we  cast  a  glance  over  the  domain  of 
the  science  of  ethics,   we  notice  many 
differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to  other 
things,  but  this  at  least  seems  to  be  un- 
questioned, that   the  highest   and  most 
perfect  outward  ethical  good  is  the  or- 
ganization of  a  community,  which  can 
make  safe  for  each  individual  all  that 
which  ir  for  him  ethically  good  in  accor- 
dance with  his  nature.     Considering  the 
criticisms,   which   my  contentions   have 
called   forth   from   certain   advocates  of 
the  so-called  scientific  pedagogy,  it  seems 


Pi 


Purpose  and  Duties  e 

best  to  me  to  attempt  in  broad  outlines 
a  statement  of  my  position. 

Each    ideal,    which   we    place    before 
ourselves,  should  embody  a  possible  con- 
dition   for   real    beings,  which    can    be 
achieved  at  some  time  or  other  in  this 
world  by  human  endeavour.    This  also 
applies  to  the  ideal  which  we  call  the 
greatest     good.    Great  difficulties    will 
anse  in  the  way  of  any  attempt  which 
tnes  to  determine  the  greatest  good  for 
the  individual  as  independent  of  outward 
conditions,  as  directly  dependent  upon 
the  activity  of  the  individual  alone.    The 
epicurean  and  Scoical  ideals  were  such 
attempts.    Their  ideals  were  achieved  in 
a  certain  permanent  state  of  mind,  which 
was  indifferent  to  the  change  of  outward 
conditions.    The  state  of  mind  in  each 
case  was  of  course  different. 

We  cannot  rest  satisfied  with  this 
belief  in  the  self-sufficiency  of  the  in- 
dividual. We  know  that  man  is  by 
nature  a  social  animal,  that  his  mental 


6      Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

life  is  influenced  on  all  sides  by  associa- 
tion with  his  fel'ow  men,  that  he  is  not 
self-sufficient   and  that   he   cannot   live 
alone  by  himself.     Further,  we  must  re- 
member that  every  vigorously  thought- 
out  ideal  that  follows  from  the  univer- 
sal  nature   of   man,   contains    in    itself 
the  demand  that  it  must  be  universally 
desired,  as  long  as  we  are  going  to  set 
it  up  as  a  universal  ideal.     From  this 
point  of  view,  therefore,  our  concept  of 
the  greatest  good  will  broaden  itself  out 
to  the  concept  of  an  ideal  state  for  a 
human  community.    Whatever  aim  we 
set  up  is  a  common  good,  which  all  men 
equally  seek  and  by  which  each  man 
may  be  benefited  according  to  his  inner 

needs. 

The  aims  of  each  separate  individual 
are  determined  by  the  needs  and  desires 
of  his  mental  and  physical  nature,  which 
demands  satisfaction  and  which  deter- 
mines just  in  what  the  individual  will 
find  satisfaction.     Such  needs  and  desires 


Purpose  and  Duties  7 

include  the  care  for  physical  well-being, 
the  control  and  use  of  natural  forces 
necessary  for  that,  the  sexual  desires  and 
the  bodily  and  mental  care  for  the  off- 
spring, the  satisfaction  of  the  social  im- 
pulse by  society,  by  love,  by  friendship, 
the  pleasure  felt  in  the  approbation  of 
others,  the  thirst  for  knowledge  and 
freedom  of  thought,  the  pleasure  arising 
from  the  beautiful  and  sublime,  the 
activity  of  the  artistic  nature,  the  neces- 
sity for  religious  uplift  and  for  the  free 
inner  formation  of  the  ethical  will.  Alt 
these  forces  lie  in  man's  nature.  The> 
are  the  great  forces  at  work  in  histor>, 
and  from  each  one  of  these  forces  w*'^^ 
ever-increasing  consciousness  of  purpose 
the  great  practical  ideals  of  each  age 
have  arisen,  and  history  is  nothing  but 
the  realization  of  these  ideals  —  industry 
and  commerce,  the  family,  the  education 
of  the  young,  social  intercourse,  science, 
art  and  religion.  Our  universal  highest 
aim  must  be  put  together  with   these 


8     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

elements.  Each  special  concept  of  the 
greatest  good  must  pay  regard  to  them. 
We  made  the  claim  that  the  greatest 
good  must  be  a  universal  aim ;  that  each 
inai/idual  has  his  right  to  a  share  of  it; 
that  the  aims  of  all  must  be  at  the  same 
time  the  aims  of  each.  From  this  it 
follows  that  in  working  for  the  common 
good  each  one  will  find  his  own  satis- 
faction, and  that  he  will  of  his  own  ac- 
cord follow  the  universal  principles,  by- 
means  of  which  he  expects  the  universal 
aim  to  be  attained.  The  organization 
of  that  social  condition,  which  is  set  up 
as  the  highest  aim,  must  naturally  contain 
within  itself  the  means  for  satisfying 
the  individually  differing  characters,  and 
offer  every  individual  the  possibility  of 
finding  satisfaction  in  a  manner  according 
to  his  nature,  i.e.  not  just  his  superficial 
nature  but  his  ethically  developed  one. 
Each  individual  aim  or  ideal  is  justifiable 
only  in  as  far  as  it  can  be  regarded  as  a 
part  of  the  common  aim.    Now  the  satis- 


Purpose  and  Duties  9 

faction,  which  is  attainable  by  all  in  the 
same  ir.;nner,  lies  ultimately  in  the  cer- 
tainty that  one  is  able  to  work  for  the 
aim  that  is  far  above  the  individual  con- 
sciousness and  its  limitations,  i.e,  for 
a  humanitarian  and  universal  ideal ;  and 
in  the  knowledge  of  r>n^»R  own  value  as  a 
bearer  of  a  highe-  '  .i,  as  the  instru- 
ment of  a  godlik  ,ill.  Just  here  it  is 
that  ethics  and  mt  aphysics  meet. 

This   social   condition,    in   which   the 
aims  of  the  individual  coincide  with  the 
common  aim,  a  society  which  I  can  im- 
agine   as    existing   without    legal    para- 
phernalia,  without   orders   and  without 
prohibitions,  this  kind  of  a  society  I  call 
a  state.    And  as  soon  as  it  satisfies  the 
previously  discussed  conditions,   I   con- 
sider it  also  the  most  ethical  community. 
The    other    communities,    such    as    the 
family,  religious   communities,   etc.,   are 
of  course  necessarily  contained  in  it,  in 
as  far  as  they  are  ethical  communities. 
If  this  were  not  th    r?.se,  then  the  numer- 


lo     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

ous  aims  of  the  individual,  to  attain 
which  he  first  of  all  comes  together  in 
smaller  communities,  would  not  be  in- 
corporated in  the  universal  or  common 
aim.  The  opposition  that  has  always 
been  raised  against  my  contentions  rests, 
in  spite  of  my  repeated  and  lengthy  ex- 
planations of  my  concept  of  a  state  and 
my  idea  of  civic  education  upon  a  mis- 
understanding. I  mean  education,  for  the 
realization  of  the  ethical  idea  of  the 
highest  outward  good  by  means  of  ser- 
vice for  the  state.  I  do  not  mean  educa- 
tion that  leads  to  blind  service  of  a  per- 
manently rigid  state  organization.  As 
soon  as  any  one  tries  honestly  to  grasp 
this  fundamental  difference,  any  mis- 
understanding is  bound  to  disappear. 

Another  misunderstanding  will  also 
disappear  —  a  misunderstanding  that  is 
common  to  those  who  believe  the  aim  of 
all  education  to  lie  in  so-called  character- 
formation,  or,  as  Gaudig  expresses  it,  in 
self-determination,  in  the  determination 


If.; 
1 

s 


Purpose  and  Duties 


II 


of  "the  ideal  of  the  ego."     Now  if  you 
set  self-determination  as  the  purpose  of 
education,  you  must  also  fix  the  aim  of 
this  self-determination.     There  have  al- 
ways been  educators  who  have  seen  in 
self-determination  or  autonomous   char- 
acter-formation the  purpose  of  education. 
The  more  the  pupil  develops,  the  more 
must    heteronomous    education    retreat, 
i.e.  in  the  best  system  of  education,  the 
educator  himself  becomes  gradually  more 
and  more  superfluous.     But  this  purely 
formal    end    of    self-determination    can 
never  give  us  a  tangible  aim.    There  is 
nothing  really  valuable  for  the  individual 
himself  and  far  less  for  the  community 
in   personality   regarded   merely  as   the 
sum  of  inherited  and  acquired  character- 
istics.   Their  value  first  arises  in  their 
influence  upon  the  personality  itself  and 
upon  the  community.     These  personality- 
values  are  as  a  matter  of  fact  of  very 
varying  worth  and  form  an  increasing 
series  up  to  the  highest  value  of  per- 


12     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

sonality,  which  seeks  and  finds  its  life's 
purpose  in  giving  itself  up  in  striving  to 
realize  the  common  and  highest  good  of 
an  ethical  community.  The  aims  or  ends 
of  such  personalities  are  contained  in  the 
common  aim,  which  we  have  shown  above 
to  be  the  greatest  good.  It  is  precisely  the 
possibility  of  working  out  the  so-called 
"ideal  of  the  ego,"  in  as  far  as  this  in- 
dividual ideal  does  not  conflict  with  the 
common  or  universal  ideal  —  it  is  pre- 
cisely this  possibility  that  forms  one  of 
the  most  essential  characteristics  of  the 
greatest  and  common  good.  From  this 
discussion  we  see  at  once  how  useless  it 
is  to  divide  education  into  individual  and 
social  education.  The  aims  of  the  in- 
dividual are  necessarily  contained  in  the 
general  aim  of  the  community,  in  as  far 
as  the  community  can  be  called  the 
greatest  good.  There  can  be  no  ethical 
community  without  the  majority  of  its 
members  being  ethical  individuals.  And 
further,  there    cannot    develop    a    great 


Purpose  and  Duties  13 

majority  of  ethical  individuals,  if  the 
constitution  and  the  general  aim  of  the 
community  are  not  based  upon  ethical 
principles. 

I  set  up  therefore  this  first  hypothesis, 
that  the  ethical  community  is  the  greatest 
outward  ethical  good  for  mankind.    And 
in  connection  with  this  there  follows  this 
second   hypothesis,    that   a   given   state 
will  progress  in  the  direction  of  the  ideal 
ethical  community  just  in  so  far  as  the 
knowledge   is   spread  abroad  by  public 
education  that  the  highest  outward  and 
the  highest  inward  ethical  good  stand  in 
close  relation  to  each  other,  and  further, 
just  in  so  far  as  all  educational  provisions 
are  made  from   the    standpoint  of   the 
ethical  concept  of  the  state.    Conceding 
these  two  hypotheses,  a  given  state  will 
therefore  determine  the  purpose  and  duty 
of  the  public  schools  in  accordance  with 
its  own   purpose  and   duty.     Now    the 
purpose   of   a   state   is   twofold:  firstly, 
an  egoistical  one,  i.e.  care  for  its  inner 


Ili 


14     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

and  outer  welfare  and  for  the  physical 
and  mental  well-being  of  its  subjects; 
secondly,  an  altruistic  one,  i.e.  a  gradual 
working  towards  a  state  of  humanity 
among  mankind  by  means  of  its  own 
special  development  to  an  ethical  com- 
munity and  by  actively  sharing  with  all 
its  might  in  the  work  of  that  larger  com- 
munity made  up  of  all  civilized  states. 

Whether  we  may  make  these  altruistic 
demands  of  every  state  at  the  present 
time,  is  of  course  questionable.  I  have 
discussed  this  point  in  more  detail  in 
my  book  "  Staatsbiirgerliche  Erziehung 
der  deutschen  Jugend."  At  any  rate  we 
may  say  that  the  altruistic  aim  cannot 
be  of  much  value  until  the  egoistic  pur- 
pose of  the  state  has  been  accomplished. 

Now  when  I  say  that  it  is  the  business 
of  the  public  schools  (including  of  course 
the  continuation  schools)  to  try  to  edu- 
cate the  rising  generation  either  by  means 
of  habit  alone  or  by  habit  and  under- 
standing, in  order  that  it  may  help  in 


Purpose  and  Duties  15 

this  double  function  in  accordance  with 
its  ability,  I  do  not  thereby  set  up  a 
utilitarian  aim,  but  an  aim  that  is  in  the 
first  place  and  in  the  greatest  degree 
an  ethical  one. 

I  only  call  that  man  a  useful  citizen 
who  serves  his  state  always  with  regard 
to    the  twofold  purpose  of    the    state. 
Therefore  it  follows  that  I  may  define 
in  a  few  words  the  purpose  of  the  public 
schools  of  a  state  or  the  purpose  of  any 
education  to  be  a  training  to  useful  citi- 
zenship.    From  this  logically  follow  the 
duties  of  the  school,  and  from  these  duties 
follows  the  organization  of  the  school  and 
likewise  the  organization  of  that  type  of 
school  which  we  now  call  "vocational "or 
"industrial."    The  ways  and  means  to 
accomplish  the  separate  purpose  wholly 
or  partly  through  a  school  depend  upon 
the  outer  and  inner  conditions  that  in- 
fluence the  physical  and  mental  develop- 
ment of  the  pupil.     From  the  sum  total 
of  these  aims,  duties,  ways  and  means 


I 


1 6     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

follows  the  concept  of  that  school  of  the 
modern  state  which  I  call  a  "work- 
school"  (vocational  or  industrial  school). 
Now  if  we  follow  carefully  all  the  duties 
and  organization  of  a  school,  which  must 
spring  from  our  concept  of  the  highest 
aim  of  the  public  school,  we  notice  at 
once  that  all  other  justifiable  purposes 
or  aims  of  education  are  also  compatible 
with  this  highest  aim.  This  aim  —  a 
training  for  citizenship  —  is  in  short  the 
whole  purpose  of  public  education. 

It  is  obvious,  for  instance,  that  no  one 
can  be  a  useful  citizen  in  our  sense  of  the 
term  who  does  not  fulfil  some  function 
in  the  state  organism,  i.f.  who  does  not 
do  some  kind  of  work  which  directly  or 
indirectly  is  useful  to  the  aims  of  the  com- 
munity. If  any  one  in  possession  of 
bodily  and  mental  health  enjoys  the 
blessings  of  the  state  organization  with- 
out in  some  way  or  other  helping  ac- 
cording to  his  ability  to  further  the  com- 
mon aim  of  the  state,  he  is  not  only  not 


Purpose  and  Duties  17 

a  useful  citizen,  but  he  is  acting  immor- 
ally.    If  any  one  uses  his  inherited  wealth 
merely  to  satisfy  his  own  pleasures,  then 
he  cannot  usurp   the  title  of  a  useful 
citizen,  because,  apart  from  the  payment 
of  taxes  imposed  upon  all  alike,  he  does 
not  bring  any  work  to  add  to  the  common 
pool  of  industry,  to  which  he  really  owes 
the   comforts    and   luxuries    of   his    life. 
On  the  other  hand,  even  the  work  of  a 
scavenger  may  possess  ethical  value,  if 
it  is  carried  out  with  a  consciousness  of 
the  necessity  of  this  work  for  the  com- 
munity. 

The  first  demand  of  an  individual  in 
the  community  is  this,  that  he  be  capable 
and  willing  to  carry  out  some  function 
in  the  state,  or  in  other  words,  that  he  be 
engaged  in  some  vocation,  so  that  he 
may  directly  or  indirectly  further  the 
aim  of  the  state.  From  this  we  recog- 
nize the  first  duty  of  the  public  school. 
It  must  first  of  all  help  each  individual 
pupil  to  choose  some  work  or,  as  we  say. 


II 


II 

It 


18     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

some  vocation  in  the  community  and  to 
fill  this  position  as  well  as  possible.  This 
is  not  yet  an  ethical  duty,  but  it  is  a 
necessary  condition,  so  that  the  public 
school  may  then  turn  its  attention  to 
ethical  duties. 

The  second  duty  of  the  school  is  to 
accustom  the  individual  to  look  at  his 
vocation  as  a  duty  that  he  must  carry 
out  not  merely  in  the  interests  of  his  own 
material  and  moral  welfare,  but  also  in 
the  interests  of  the  state,  which  gives 
each  individual  the  possibility  of  carry- 
ing out  his  work  and  of  making  his  living 
protected  by  the  law  and  order  of  a 
civilized  community.  According  to  the 
kind  of  vocation  in  question  will  it  be 
easy,  difficult  or  impossible  to  see  in  it 
a  direct  service  in  the  interests  of  the 
community.  There  are  a  number  of 
vocations  where  this  altruistic  conception 
surrounds  them  as  with  a  halo.  In 
regard  to  the  others  it  will  always  be 
possible  early  to  develop  in  the  rising 


Purpose  and  Duties 


>9 


generation  a  consciousness  of  the  fact 
that  each  vocation  can  be  looked  upon 
as  a  necessary  service  to  the  community 
and  that  the  undertaking  of  any  paid 
work,  however  monotonous  or  modest  it 
may  be,  carries  with  it  the  obligation 
of  doing  one's  best. 

From  this  follows  the  third  and  greatest 
educational  duty  of  the  public  school. 
It  must  develop  in  its  pupils  the  desire 
and  strength  in  addition  to  and  through 
their  vocation  to  contribute  their  share 
so  that  the  development  of  the  state,  to 
which  they  belong,  may  progress  in  the 
direction  of  the  ideal  of  the  ethical  com- 
munity. 

These  are  the  three  obvious  duties  of 
our  public  schools,  and  they  include  at 
the  same  time  the  whole  aim  of  educa- 
tion.    Let  us  denote  them  shortly  as :  — 

1.  The  duty  of  vocational  education, 
or  the  preparation  for  a  vocation. 

2.  The  duty  of  teaching  the  ethical 
value  of  a  vocation. 


20     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

3.  The  duty  of  ching  the  ethical 
value  of  the  community  within  which 
the  vocation  is  carried  out. 

Since  we  cannot  make  ethical  the  com- 
munity without  making  ethical  those  who 
form  the  community,  so  these  three  duties 
of  the  school  necessarily  include  the 
ethical  training  of  the  individual. 


CHAPTER  II 


The  First  Duty  —  Vocational  Education 

^  I  ^E  first  and  most  important  duty 
J.    of  the  public  schools  (elementary, 
continuation  and  high)  is  to  give  voca- 
tional   education    or    to    prepare    their 
pupils  for  a  profession.    This  seems  at 
first  to  contradict  absolutely  the  present- 
day  conception  of  universal  education. 
And  yet  no  less  a  man  than  Pestalozzi 
was    filled    through    and    through    with 
this   conceptio?.,   although   the  ultimate 
ideal  of  education  that  floated  before  his 
eyes  was  that  of  universal  culture  for 
mankind.    Pestalozzi  is  never  tired  of 
emphasizing  this  first  and  most  important 
duty,  although  he  does  this  from  other 
motives  than  the  ones  I  have  described. 
As  the  child  of  his  generation  he  could 
not  free  himself  from  the  idea  that  the 

Si 


! 

I 


22     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

profession  of  his  pupil  was  absolutely 
dependent  upon  the  class  in  which  he 
was  born.  Many  parts  of  his  last  work, 
in  which  he  collects  the  experience  and 
educational  ideas  of  his  life,  are  full  of  this 
conception  of  the  first  duty  of  the  public 
schools.  The  conditions  at  that  time 
were  much  less  complex  than  now,  and 
it  was  only  natural  to  believe  that  the 
inner  organization  of  the  elementary 
school  should  serve  the  aims  of  that  class 
in  the  community  to  which  the  pupils 
belonged,  and  in  which  they  would  most 
probably  remain. 

These  conditions  have  changed  greatly 
during  the  last  hundred  years.  There 
are  no  hard  and  fast  lines  dividing  the 
classes  in  a  community.  Industry  has 
brought  about  so  many  changes  in  the 
conditions  of  the  workers  that  we  can- 
not conceive  as  possible  a  pure  vocational 
organization  of  the  elementary  schools, 
whose  aim  is  the  vague  aim  of  Pestalozzi's 
universal    human    culture.    To-day    we 


Vocational  Education 


as 


feel  it  more  than  ever  that  the  duty  of 
the  elementary  schools  is  to  prepare  their 
pupils  for  some  vocation.  Now  the  vast 
majority  of  the  members  of  any  state 
are  employed  in  physical  work,  and  this 
will  be  true  for  all  time.  For  every 
human  community  has  need  of  many 
more  manual  workers  than  brain  workers. 
Again,  the  ability  of  the  masses  is  not 
such  as  is  adapted  to  mental  work, 
but  rather  to  manual  work,  from  which 
indeed  in  the  history  of  civilization 
mental  work  gradually  developed.  Man- 
ual work  is  not  only  the  basis  of  all 
true  art,  but  also  the  basis  of  all  true 
science.  A  public  school  system  which 
has  to  prepare  its  pupils  for  mental  and 
manual  professions  is  badly  organized, 
if  it  has  no  means  for  developing  the 
manual  abilities  of  its  pupils.  A  further 
proof  of  its  bad  organization  lies  in  the 
fact  that  in  the  development  of  the  child 
physical  development  precedes  mental, 
and  that,  especially  between  the  ages  of 


24     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

three  and  fourteen,  the  instincts  and 
desires  for  manual  occupations  arfi  un- 
doubtedly the  strongest.  I  do  not  con- 
sider it  necessary  that  arrvin.,?emeni,s  be 
made  for  manual  training  (in  addition 
to  the  bodily  exercise  required  for  health) 
in  schools  which  prepare  their  pupils 
for  purely  intellectual  professions,  as 
is  the  case  with  a  certain  type  of  high 
school.  Nor  is  it  necessary  for  those 
who  will  in  future  life  be  almost  en- 
tirely under  the  influence  of  intellectual 
motives  and  desires,  when  once  their 
instincts  for  manual  activity  have  died 
down,  having  achieved  what  is  necessary 
in  the  development  of  the  normal  use  of 
their  limbs  and  sense-organs.  There  are 
people  of  this  sort  and  there  are  voca- 
tions into  which  they  fit.  I  can  there- 
fore conceive  of  a  vocational  school 
which  has  no  manual  training  in  any 
special  workshop,  or  where  no  manual 
training  enters  into  the  curriculum  even 
apart  from  special  shop  work.    For  all 


jmmm 


Vocational  Education 


25 


other  pupils,  however,  schools  which  are 
lacking  in  such  equipment  are  badly- 
organized  schools.  From  our  discussion 
we  see  at  once  that  every  elementary- 
school  must  make  arrangements  for  prac- 
tical work  by  means  of  workshops, 
gardens,  kitchens,  sewing  rooms  and  lab- 
oratories. By  means  of  these  the  in- 
stincts for  manual  activity  will  be  sys- 
tematically developed;  the  pupil  will 
be  taught  by  actual  practice  to  carry  out 
his  work  carefully,  thoughtfully,  honestly 
and  conscientiously.  Only  in  this  man- 
ner can  a  solid  foundation  be  laid  for  his 
later  vocational  training  by  means  of  the 
continuation  school,  that  is  to  say,  by 
making  him  from  the  very  beginning 
accustomed  to  do  carefully  thought-out 
and  conscientious  manual  work.  Or  in 
other  words,  manual  training  in  any  well- 
organized  public  school  must  be  recog- 
nized as  an  independent  and  legitimate 
subject  of  instruction.  This  recognition 
is  not  a  degradation  for  the  public  school. 


26     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

but  rather  one  of  the  greatest  blessings. 
For  :i  hundred  years  in  Bavrria  a  great 
number  of  girls'  schools  have  recognized 
manual  training  as  a  regular  subject. 
For  the  last  forty  years  Munich  has 
devoted  at  least  three  hours  per  week  to 
this.  Never  until  the  present  agitation 
did  any  one  dream  of  looking  upon  this 
instruction  as  a  degradation  of  the  girls' 
schools,  nor  was  any  one  willing  to  have 
it  struck  out  of  the  curriculum  of  the 
elementary  schools  for  girls.  Some  one 
may  raise  the  objection  that  knitting, 
sewing,  laundry  work,  etc,  is  in  a  way 
the  vocation  of  almost  i;very  girl;  but 
that  not  every  boy  takes  up  in  this  way 
the  same  kind  of  vocation.  That  is 
quite  true.  But  we  must  not  conclude 
from  this  that  therefore  the  school  has 
no  right  to  include  in  its  curriculum  any 
kind  of  systematic  manual  training  what- 
ever. If  we  make  such  a  conclusion,  we 
would  also  be  warranted  in  arguing  that 
because  all  men  cannot  thrive  on  the 


BU 


■HM 


■IHI 


Vocational  Education 


27 


same  kind  of  food,  we  should  therefore 
give  them  no  food  to  eat. 

A  hundred  years  ago  when  the  spirit 
of  Pestalozzi  still  permeated  German 
school  organization,  it  was  considered 
natural  for  boys,  just  as  much  as  for 
girls,  to  have  some  kind  of  industrial 
training.  These  ideals  were  disturbed 
by  the  Napoleonic  wars  and  pushed  out 
of  sight  by  the  reaction  that  followed. 
Nevertheless,  those  ideas  show  to  us  at 
the  present  day  a  surprising  knowledge 
and  they  are  full  of  the  most  well-mean- 
ing intentions.  A  decree  of  the  general 
school  board  of  the  Palatinate  of  Bavaria 
issued  to  the  local  school  boards  in  1803 
gives  us  a  good  example  of  what  is  meant : 
"Certain  technical  accomplishments  are 
more  or  less  necessary  for  every  person. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  establish 
everywhere  industrial  schools  for  boys 
and  girls,  and  for  these  to  stand  in  con- 
nection with  the  ordinary  academic 
schools.    These  industrial  schools  must 


1  f, 


28     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

not  excuse  those  pupils  from  attendance, 
who  take  it  for  granted  that  they  do  not 
need  to  work  in  order  to  earn  their  bread ; 
for,    apart    from    changes    of    fortune, 
through  which  many  lose  their  inherited 
riches,  it  is  always  good  for  every  one  to 
learn  how  to  value  the  privilege  of  being 
able  to  earn  his  living,  and  how  to  respect 
those  who  knov/  how  to  acquire  a  com- 
fortable position  by  means  of  their  in- 
dustry and  skill."     Remember  also  that 
in  those  times  the  workshop  of  the  father 
was  in  most  cases  in  his  own  house.     But 
the  children  of  this  generation,  and  es- 
pecially those  in  our  great  cities,  grow 
up  without  any  manual  training  at  home, 
and  in  most  cases  have  not  the  slightest 
conception  of  their  father's  trade,  and 
cannot  therefore  be  seized  with  the  magic 
of  its  blessing. 

The  essence  of  preparatory  training 
for  manual  work  does  not  lie  in  introduc- 
ing into  our  manual  training  courses,  tools, 
machines  and  materials  that  belong  to  a 


■■Mia 


Vocational  Education 


29 


definite  profession.  In  the  same  way  the 
essence  of  preparatory  training  for  in- 
tellectual vocations  does  not  consist  in 
dispensing  knowledge  for  a  .pecial  pro- 
fession. In  both  cases  the  essential  thing 
is  to  form  and  practise  those  organs, 
mental  or  physical,  which  are  necessary 
for  the  vocation,  to  form  habits  of  honest 
work,  of  carefulness,  of  thoroughness  and 
of  foresight,  and  lastly  to  awaken  a  real 
joy  in  work.  If  any  one  gains  these 
qualities  in  any  kind  of  systematic  work 
(e.g.  woodwork),  then  he  possesses  them 
and  uses  them  in  any  kind  :^^  manual 
work  which  his  vocation  later  may  call 
for.  It  is  just  the  same  as  with  the 
student  who  has  developed  a  logical  way 
of  thinking,  conscientiousness  and  love 
of  truth  by  means  of  a  study  of  Latin  or 
mathematics.  He  possesses  these  quali- 
ties and  uses  them  later,  perhaps  not  as  a 
philologist,  mathematician  or  scientist, 
but  as  a  lawyer,  historian  or  philosopher. 
From  this  primary  duty  of  the  ele- 


•  ^^ 


30     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

mentary  school,  i.e.  a  preparation  for  a 
vocation,  follows  logically,  in  the  organiz- 
ation of  our  school  system,  the  demand 
for  professional  and  systematically  ar- 
ranged industrial  training.  This  neces- 
sity is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the 
mental  development  of  the  masses,  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  special  intellectual 
gifts,  must  undoubtedly  take  place 
through  and  by  means  of  industrial 
training.  Now  these  manual  professions, 
and  especially  the  skilled  professions, 
because  their  interests  are  so  closely 
bound  up  with  the  interests  of  the  state, 
require  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
four  primitive  tools  of  culture  —  reading, 
writing,  counting  and  drawing  —  which 
we  might  call  in  a  way  mental  accomplish- 
ments. Moreover,  we  must  demand 
bodily  health  and  to  some  extent  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  nature  and  especially 
of  personal  hygiene,  and  for  this  purpose 
gymnastics  and  nature  study  must  neces- 
sarily be  incorporated  in  the  curriculum 


■miiiiiii 


Vocational  Education 


31 


of  our  elementary  schools.  These  are 
demands  which  we  need  not  further  con- 
sider in  this  'look.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
must  emphasize  this  :  the  more  closely 
the  development  of  mental  accomplish- 
ments can  be  associated  with  the  develop- 
ment of  manual  ace  <mplishments,  the 
more  perfect  will  be  the  organization  of 
our  school  and  the  better  will  those 
mental  accomplishments  develop.  If  we 
could  know  very  early  what  vocation  a 
child  would  follow  in  accordance  with  his 
inclination  and  ability,  if  so  many 
children  were  not  dependent  upon  chance 
or  custom  in  their  choice  of  a  profession, 
if  interest  in  a  special  vocation  did  not 
develop  so  late  or  never  develop,  as  is 
often  the  case  now  because  of  the  indus- 
trial status  of  the  parents  or  through 
other  causes  —  if  these  hindrances  were 
not  in  the  way,  then  the  best  organiza- 
tion of  our  schools  would  be  that  in  which 
the  children  would  be  grouped  according 
to  their  future  vocation.     It  would  not 


32     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

be  nght  to  make  these  schools  merely- 
professional  schools,  but  they  could  be 
organized  so  that  the  most  important 
part  of  the  school  work  would  be  a  prep- 
aration for  their  future  vocation,  and 
this  we  have  seen  is  the  first  duty  of  the 
elementary  school.  Further,  if  the  voca- 
tions prepared  for  by  these  schools  coin- 
cided absolutely  with  the  vocations  of 
the  parents,  then  an  ideal  organization 
could  be  realized.  This  school  would 
not  be  something  foreign  and  strange  to 
the  life  of  the  child.  It  would  not  be 
something  isolated  from  the  daily  work 
of  his  parents.  It  would  be  rather  an 
educational  institution  that  would  include 
within  itself  the  daily  work  of  the  child's 
home,  that  would  ennoble  it  and  would 
shed  the  bright  light  of  intellect  around 
it.  Then  could  the  teacher,  as  Pestalozzi 
in  his  last  work  pictured  it,  so  weave  his 
teaching  into  the  work  of  the  child's 
parent,  as  a  weaver  weaves  a  flower  into 
his  piece  of  cloth.     But  we  have  none  of 


Vocational  Education 


33 


these  conditions  at  the  present  time, 
neither  in  our  most  purely  agricultural 
nor  in  our  most  purely  industrial  com- 
munities. In  most  cases  the  elementary 
school  must  abandon  this  ideal  of  con- 
centration. But  the  continuation  school 
must  not  do  so.  It  can  and  must  strive 
to  attain  this  ideal  to  a  great  extent,  and 
Munich  'as  shown  the  world  that  it 
can  be  realized. 


11 


CHAPTER  III 

The   Second  and  Third   Duties  of  the 
Public  Schools 

THE  second  duty  of  all  public  schools, 
that  follows  from  the  general  ideal, 
is  the  teaching  of  the  ethical  value  of  a 
vocation.  The  ethical  value  of  all  actions, 
which  are  considered  right  according  to 
the  conscience  of  any  generation,  begins 
at  that  point  where  these  actions  are 
carried  out,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  our  own  inner  personality,  or 
from  an  altruistic  desire  to  attain  some 
outer  ethical  ideal.  To  teach  in  school 
as  conscientiously  as  possible,  because 
one  is  appointed  teacher  and  paid  for 
the  work,  has  no  ethical  value.  To  do 
the  same,  not  for  the  sake  of  money,  but 
because  to  do  it  otherwise  would  lower 
one's  own  self-respect,  has  some  ethical 

34 


ii^ 


Duties  of  the  Public  Schools     35 

value.    To  doit  for  the  sake  of  the  pleas- 
ure of  the   doing,  for  the  inner  uplift 
which  we  feel  in  this  conviction,  has  more 
ethical  value.    To  do  it  because  one  can- 
not imagine  a  more  beautiful  duty  than 
in  this  way  helping  in  the  general  uplift 
of  mankind,  has  the  most  ethical  value. 
The  consciousness  that  our  work,  be  it 
the  slightest  or  the  lowest,  is  carried  out 
for  the  good  of  the  community  to  which 
we  belong,  always  adds  an  ethical  value 
to  our  activity.    To  develop  this  con- 
sciousness in  a  school  and  to  make  it 
alive,    there    is    no    other    means    than 
what  I  have  called  the  organization  of 
the  schoc'  in  the  spirit  of  an  industrial 
community.    Only  in  connection  and  in 
cooperation  with   the  habits   gained   in 
this  industrial  community  of  the  home  or 
school   can   instruction   in   religion,   his- 
tory and  literature  (the  so-called  ethical 
studies  of   the   Herbartians)  be   helpful 
for  a  development  of  the  consciousness 
of  the  ethical  value  of  work. 


36     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

This  idea  of  the  school  as  a  free  and 
independent   industrial   community   has 
remained  quite  foreign  to  our  German 
schools.     It   has   only   found   conscious 
realization  in  some  few  elementary  and 
high  schools,  either  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  curriculum,  or  in  the  methods  con- 
trolling school  discipline,  or  in  encourag- 
ing   independent    and    voluntary    work 
among  the  pupils  for  the  benefit  of  thc- 
school   itself.    And  yet  it  is   almost  *; 
hundred  years  ago  since  Fichte  in   his 
"Speeches  to  the  German  Nation"  told 
us   that   in  industrial  communities   the 
coming  generation  would   find   its   best 
educational    means.     For    twelve    years 
I   have   agitated  for  this   and  held  up 
Fichte  as  an  authority.     I  have  pointed 
as  a  proof  to  the  work  of  Dr.  Lietz  in 
his  open-air  schools  and  to  John  Dewey's 
brilliant  experiment   in  Chicago,   which 
lasted   unfortunately   for   such    a   short 
time.    England      and     America      have 
grasped  this  idea  of  an  industrial  com- 


Duties  of  the  Public  Schools     37 

munity  much  better.    It  is  too  true  that 
even  in  those  countries  the  real  school 
training  has  an  eye  most  of  all  to  the 
development  of  the  individual,  as  is  the 
case   in   Germany.    But  we   do   notice 
in  a  great  number  of  the  schools  of  those 
countries  that  many  questions  of  class  or 
school   discipline   are    intrusted   to   the 
self-government  of  the  pupils,  and  the 
idea   of   a    real    community    is    further 
realized  in  many  literary,  athletic,  scien- 
tific and  artistic  clubs  or  associations. 
We  Germans  have  not  yet  sufficiently 
realized  that  school  matters  are  of  direct 
concern   to  the   people.    We   have   got 
into  the  hateful  custom  of  being  governed 
in  all  our  educational  affairs.    Therefore 
we   are  still  standing  before  this   ideal 
without  being  able  to  show  much  activity 
towa-ds  its  realization.    We  never  even 
think  of  it  on  those  very  occasions  when 
self-government  by  the  pupils  would  be 
one  of  the  most  natural  things  in  the 
world,  e.g.  at  school  celebrations.     Such 


{Id. 


38     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

a  thing  need  not  be  hindered  by  the  fact 
that    the    usual    book    training   of   our 
schools  —  our  reading,  writing  and  arith- 
metic, our  history,  geography,  literature 
and  language  teaching  —  is  a  very  un- 
suitable foundation  upon  which  to  build 
up  an  independent  industrial  community. 
Something   in   this    direction    might   be 
achieved  in  the  two  highest  classes  by 
means    of    adequate    class    and    school 
libraries.    Training   in   cookery   and   in 
gardening,    real    industrial    training    in 
workshops,  in  fact  any  kind  of  practical 
activity,  forms  the  best  foundation  for 
the  development  of  an  industrial  com- 
munity, and  these  things  are  found  only 
too  seldom  in  our  public  schools.     Sim- 
ilarly, regular  practical  work  in  physics, 
chemistry  and  biology  also  affords  the 
possibility  of  organizing  communal  work, 
and  these  subjects  are  nowhere  compul- 
sory in  our  elementary  schools. 

When  I  gave  expression  four  or  five 
years  ago  to  this  idea  of  school  govern- 


Duties  of  the  Public  Schools     39 

ment,  not  the  technical  difficulties  but 
the  moral  value  of  it  was  immediately- 
questioned.    It  was  urged  that  the  best 
and  most  ambitious  pupils  would  con- 
tinually obtain  the  leadership  of  the  com- 
munity ;  that  the  great  mass  of  children 
would  be,  as  it  were,  hypnotized  and  com- 
pelled to  follow,  or  else  voluntarily  trot 
tamely   behind   like   a   flock   of   sheep. 
Certainly  the  best  boys  would  get  the 
leadership,  and  they  ought  to  have  it. 
I  have  watched  them  often  enough  in  our 
school  exercises  based  on  the  principle  of 
self-govemmeiit.     Why,    it   is   just    the 
business  of  the  school   to  teach   these 
leaders   how   to  exercise   the   duties   of 
leadership  in  the  service  of  their  weaker 
brethren!    Would  any  one  advise  the 
breaking-up  of  the  self-government  of  a 
nation   simply   because   people   can   be 
divided  up  into  leaders  and  followers? 
To  the  logical  thinker  this  phenomenon 
is  one  of  the  most  important  reasons  for 
ii  :roducing    self-government    into    the 


V.' 


^    ;i 


40     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

school.    Of  course  in  introducing  such  a 
principle  we  take  for  granted  a  deep  in- 
sight on  the  part  of  the  teacher  into  the 
workings    of    such    a    community.    We 
dare  not  form  such  communities  before 
our  pupils  have  attained  a  certain  mini- 
mum of  intellectual,  manual  and  moral 
capability  in  the  department  of  industry 
in  question.    Again,  we  should  not  bind 
together  into  the  same  community  ele- 
ments which  are  too  unlike,  and  we  must 
always  give  careful  attention  to  the  great 
egoists,   who   always   exist   everjrwhere. 
Now  and  again  we  would  take  the  leaders 
of  d\  groups,  in  as  far  as  we  have  organ- 
ized industrial  communities  in  our  classes, 
and  form  them  for  some  special  subject 
into   a  rather   industrial   community   so 
that  vould  not  continually  have  the 

feelii  .  special  ability  and  power.  And 
above  all  the  teachers  of  such  a  school 
must  be  saturated  with  the  spirit  of  an 
altruistic  industrial  community,  which 
they  form  among  themselves  and  along 


Duties  of  the  Public  Schools     41 

with  their  pupils.  It  is  this  last  that  will 
prove  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in 
carrying  through  this  project.  There 
may  be  a  great  deal  of  idealism  among 
teachers,  but  an  idealism  that  leads  to 
willing  sacrifices  outside  of  scheduled 
school  hours  is,  as  is  the  case  in  all  other 
professions,  not  so  very  common. 

If  the  spirit  of  the  paid  laborer  domi- 
nates the  teachers  of  a  school,  pupils  will 
never  be   influenced  to   band   together 
into  industrial  communities  outside  of 
the  regular  teaching  work,  and  if  they 
should  do  so,  such  communities  will  only 
too  easily  be  lacking  in  the  needed  ethical 
value.    But  on  the  other  hand,  if  the 
pupils  of  a  school  are  moved  with  the  real 
spirit  of  an  ethical  industrial  community, 
this  very  spirit  itself  will  be  the  most 
brilliant  testimonial  of  the  inner  ethical 
value  of  the  teachers   of  that   school. 
The  springs  of  moral  self-sacrifice  run 
dry  only  too  soon,  unless  they  are  con- 
stantly  fed    by   the   example   of    those 


42     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

who  make  up  the  environment  of  the 
pupil. 

If  this  principle  of  an  industrial  com- 
munity is  realized,  we  not  only  bring  to 
bear  the  greatest  forces  in  raising  the 
ethical  value  of  a  vocation  in  the  eyes  of 
our  pupils,  but  there  will  also  be  developed 
a  whole  mass  of  valuable  qualities  which 
could  otherwise  scarcely  have  been 
nourished  in  our  ordinary  school  life. 
Because  of  the  manifold  points  of  contact 
with  each  other,  into  which  an  industrial 
community  continually  brings  its  pupils, 
there  is  developed  a  characteristic  which 
I  shall  speak  more  about  in  a  later  part 
of  my  book.  This  is  sensitivity  or  acuity 
of  perception  and  feeling,  which  is  in 
itself  no  moral  quality,  but  which  is  of 
the  highest  value  for  the  development  of 
character.  Furthermore,  another  moral 
quality,  especially  in  regard  to  the  best 
pupils,  is  put  to  the  test  in  a  way  that  is 
impossible  in  our  present  school  system. 
I  mean  the  consciousness  of  responsibiJ'ty. 


Duties  of  the  Public  Schools     43 

Not  only  the  leaders  of  the  separate 
groups  but  each  member  of  them  is  daily- 
made  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  work  done 
is  of  importance  for  him  as  an  individual, 
but  also  goes  to  make  or  mar  the  quality 
of  the  work  of  the  whole  group.    Our 
present-day  schools  are  hardly  able  to 
awaken  the  pupil  to  the  idea  of  respon- 
sibility, far  less  are  they  able  to  produce 
in  him  a  real  live  feeling  of  responsibility. 
If  the  industrial  community  of  the  home 
did  not  at  the  present  time  take  unto 
itself  the  lion's  share  in  this  regard,  then 
this  quality    so  necessary  for  a  useful 
citizen  would  disappear  more  and  more. 
Now  a  school  must  be  able  to  awaken 
the  ethical  feeling    of    self-sacrifice  by 
means  of  its  industrial  communities  and 
the  ethical  instruction  based  upon  these, 
before  it  can  grapple  with  the  third  and 
last   duty  of  a  public  school,   i.e.   the 
duty  of  helping  to  raise  the  ethical  star!d- 
ard  of  the  community  in  which  the  pupil 
lives  and  in  which  he  will  carry  out  his 


44     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

vocation.    This  is  the  highest  aim  in  the 
CIVIC  education  of  youth  and  must  be  the 
highest  ideal  of  our  public  education. 
The  important  thing  to  be  achieved  here 
is   to  accustom   the  pupil   as   early  as 
possible  to  work  for  some  idea  or  ideal. 
The  elementary  school  can  do  little  more 
than  build  up  this  habit  by  means  of  its 
mdustrial  communities.    Attempts  made 
by  means  of  history  or  ethical  instruc- 
tion to  teach  the  pupils  the  duties  of 
citizenship  and  the  principles  of  ethics 
are  on  the  whole  useless.    Our  pupils 
are  too  immature  and  mostly  lack  the 
necessary   mental   intelligence.    Greater 
possibilities  in  this  direction  are  open  to 
our  high  schools  and  to  the  higher  classes 
of  our  industrial   continuation   schools, 
in  which  latter  a  more  intelligent  class  of 
scholars  are  found  because  of  the  more 
professional   nature   of  the   work.     For 
this     reason,    compulsory    continuation 
schools  where  civic  education  is  given, 
are  a  necessary  consequence  if  we  wish 


Duties  of  the  Public  Schools     45 

to  perfect  the  organization  of  our  ele- 
mentary school  system.  How  this  addi- 
tion to  our  educational  system  should  be 
arranged  in  order  to  fulfil  its  third  and 
last  duty  I  have  described  elsewhere.* 

»  Cf.  "  Begriff  der  StaauburgerKchen  Eniehung"  (a  Aufl. 
19".  Teubner),  "Gnindfragen  der  Schulorganisation"  (3 
Aufl.  1911,  Teubner,  Leipzig),  and  "  Staataburgerliche  Enie- 
hung der  deuuchen  Jugend  "  (5  Aufl.  191 1,  Villaret,  Erfurt). 


.51 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  Methods  of  the  Industrial  School 


THE  foregoing  discussion  of  the  three 
duties  of  the  public  school,  which 
we  deduced  from  the  ultimate  aim  of  that 
institution,  has  led  us  to  a  rough  sketch 
of  the  inner  organization  of  the  industrial 
school,  as  I  called  it  in  my  speech  in 
Zurich  four  years  ago.  However  old 
the  expression  "industrial  school"  may 
be,  yet  I  think  I  may  claim  that  the 
content  I  have  given  it  is  different  from 
any  previous  content. 

We  have  not  yet  exhausted  the  whole 
content  of  the  expression  in  our  dis- 
cussion above.  Those  three  duties  and 
the  organization  arising  from  them  have 
shown  us  the  direction  in  which  the  public 
schools  must  go  to  achieve  this  character 
training.     From  this  we  have  obtained 

46 


Methods  of  the  Industrial  School    47 

the   first   series   of   characteristics   that 
arise  from  the  idea  of  a  vocational  school. 
A  second  series  of  characteristics  arise 
from  the  intrinsic  nature  of  this  character 
training.     Now  in  investigating  this  we 
are  standing  on  the  threshold  of  the  most 
fundamental  problem  in  education.    This 
is  not  a  question  of  the  aims  to  be  at- 
tained, but  of  the  physical  forces  in  the 
pupil,  which  must  be  called  upon  and 
which  must  be  directed.    Which  of  these 
forces  are  unchangeable  and  which  are 
changeable   and   therefore  open   to  the 
influence  of  training?    How  must  this 
influence  be  brought  to  bear,  so  that  the 
personal    disposition    may   be   ethically 
developed  and  so  that  at  the  same  time 
no  valuable  qualities  may  be  suppressed 
or  neglected  .?    In  a  book  of  mine  on  the 
idea  of  character  ^  I  have  sought  to  find 
out  these  physical  forces  and  to  group 
them    together   under   a    new   concept, 

>Cf.  Kerscheasteiner,  "Charakterbegriff  und  Chtrakter- 
gestaltung  "  (B.  G.  Teubner,  Leipzig,  1912). 


*  I 


\  I  If 


k 


48     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

which  I  have  called  the  concept  of  the 
"intelligible  character."  There  are  four 
forces  whose  presence  gives  us  the  possi- 
bility of  being  able  to  train  a  useful 
character.  These  are  strength  of  will, 
clarity  of  judgment,  sensitivity  and  ini- 
tiative power.  These  forces  or  powers 
are  like  all  physical  forces  not  absolutely 
independent  of  each  other.  The  last 
one  in  especial  would  seem  to  influence 
to  a  great  degree  the  three  others  and  is 
on  the  whole,  I  imagine,  an  unchangeable 
disposition. 

The  development  of  the  first  three 
qualities  demands  above  all  freedom  of 
activity  and  a  coming  in  contact  with 
ever-changing  conditions.  The  will  can 
only  be  developed  by  willing  actions,  and 
if  the  will  is  to  be  strengthened,  it  must 
have  freedom  in  action.  If  the  intellect 
is  to  learn  how  to  judge  -learly,  it  must 
as  far  as  possible  through  experience  work 
up  its  ideas  and  concepts.  If  sensitivity 
is  to  increase,  reason  and  feeling  must 


Methods  of  the  Industrial  School    49 

be  brought  early  into  contact  with  mani- 
fold experience  in  order  that  they  may 
become  accustomed  to  react  quickly  and 
in  order  that  the  variety  of  response  may 
be  great.  The  passivity  and  receptivity 
developed  by  our  present-day  schools 
hinder  the  development  of  these  three 
forces,  and  very  often  direct  them  into 
other  channels  where  the  difficulty  of 
guiding  them  ethically  is  greatly  increased. 
It  is  of  course  true  that  the  old  battle- 
cry  of  Pestalozzi  —  "self-activity  for  the 
child"  —  is  continuously  on  the  lips  of 
our  teachers  to-day.  Now  this  self- 
activity  in  the  usual  word  and  book 
teaching  of  our  common  schools  is  non- 
existent, and  even  where  some  self- 
activity  does  really  exist  it  is  bound  down 
into  a  prescribed  channel  as  far  as  the 
three  principal  psychical  forces  are  con- 
cerned. It  is  unfortunately  more  like 
the  self-activity  of  a  machine  than  that 
of  a  productive  worker. 
The  slight  influence  of  such  a  school 


5©     Idea  o^  the  Industrial  School 

system  upon  the  formatkn  of  character 
cannot  long  remain  unnoticed.  Our  cul- 
tural, political  and  social  life  requires 
always  more  and  more  indi^  idualizat  on. 
There  is  an  increasing  ( on.»cioii8ne*?s  of  the 
growing  dcart>  of  dt.  iterestcd  independ- 
ent men.  The  peopi »  a-  who 
failing  to  grapi  le  adequa  '  ^ 
problems  that  ney  have 
these  tbin^  sheiv,  a?  Lici 
pointed  ut,  that  mod  r  Ge 
tion  *  is  -anti  g  n  ative  power.  We 
are  learning  ever>'  d.  y  ^he  importance  of 
practical  initiative,  v  hich  cannot  be  re- 
placed by  f  V  other  lality  —  of  initiative 
that  is  governf'd  uy  hi?h  ideals.  This 
quality  can  nevt  "  be  dev  loped  in  an  edu- 
cational svstem  I  It  lay  down  an  abso- 
lutely definite  path  which  the  pupil  must 
ke.  And  so  tne  cry  for  introducing 
practical  work  within  our  schools  is  becom- 
ing ki«kr  anr  louder.    First  of  all,  there 


are 

V     h    thf 
A 
k   hi. 
lan  educa- 


*This  is  equally  t 
in  general.    (Translai 


.n.  lerican  and  European  education 


Methods  of  the  Industrial  School    51 

was  a  demand  for  manual  training  in  the 
narrow  sense  ot  that  word.  Then  there 
came  the  idea  uf  industrial  training,  and 
at  first  it  was  understood  in  the  sense  of 
combining  a  great  number  of  manual 
activities  with  all  the  conventional  sub- 
jects of  instruction.  This  conception 
of  industrial  education  as  being  instruc- 
tion in  mere  manual  work  showed  how 
little  of  the  essence  of  the  idea  of  indus- 
trial education  had  been  grasped.  At 
the  same  time  a  great  many  school  direc- 
tors refused  to  recognize  even  this  man- 
ual industrial  training  as  a  proper  subject 
of  instruction,  and  in  putting  it  thus  to  one 
f  i'Je  they  spoiled  entirely  the  influence  it 
might  have  had  upon  the  formation  of 
character.  In  three  meetings  of  the 
German  Teachers'  Association  an  anath- 
ema was  launched  against  the  incor- 
poration of  industrial  training  in  the 
regular  curriculum.  At  the  same  time 
the  movement  for  training  the  hand  had 
caused  many  teacher^  v  gr<"at 


ii 


■I 


52     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

tion  to  manual  work  in  the  narrowest 
meaning  of  the  term.  This  being  the 
state  of  affairs,  it  can  easily  be  understood 
that  the  new  movemenc  for  real  industrial 
training  was  a  long  time  in  establishing 
itself.  The  real  inner  meaning  of  indus- 
trial training  had  not  led  up  to  these 
efforts  at  manual  work,  although  kinder- 
garten occupations,  the  training  of  hand 
and  eye,  the  old  demand  for  self-activity 
—  all  these  things  led  to  the  recognition 
of  the  principle  of  industrial  education. 
Since  work  is  generally  a  manual  activity, 
it  was  thought  at  first  that  the  problem 
of  industrial  training  would  be  solved 
by  attaching  some  manual  activity  to 
each  conventional  subject  of  instruction. 
For  example,  it  was  thought  that  one  had 
given  the  character  of  industrial  training 
to  history  lessons  in  the  higher  classes 
by  the  modelling  of  old  castles,  by  fret- 
work copies  of  old  architecture,  by  draw- 
ing plans  of  battle-fields,  etc.  This  new 
principle  was   made   responsible   for  il- 


Methods  of  the  Industrial  School     53 

lustratingepic  poems  and  biblical  stories. 
Now  just  as  little  as  you  learn  the  cate- 
gorical imperative  by  drawing  the  por- 
trait of  Kant,  do  such  manual  activities 
partake  of  the  spirit  of  industrial  educa- 
tion.   All   instruction,   which   must  de- 
pend upon  facts  handed  down  by  tradi- 
tion, as  in  history,  religion  and  language, 
can  only  be  useful  for  the  formation  of 
character  by  real  intellectual  work.    Man- 
ual work  is  only  useful  where  the  ideas 
and  knowledge  arise  from  facts  of  daily 
experience,  where  the  matter  for  building 
up  images  must  be  won  from  sense-ex- 
perience.   All  intellectual  pursuits  that 
have  developed   in    the  course  of  time 
have  their  specific  method  of  work.    The 
principle  of  activity  is  only  then  upheld, 
when  the  work  of  penetrating  into  the 
circle  of  ideas  and  method  of  thought  of 
this  subject  matter  coincides  with  the 
specific  method  of  work,  which  has  been 
developed  with   psychological   necessity 
by  this  subject  itself.    There  are  many 


m 


■  t 

',f 


54     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

forms  which  the  true  principle  of  produc- 
tive work  may  take  in  different  subjects 
of  instruction.  It  may  take  the  form  in 
history  of  using  accounts  by  contem- 
porary authors,  of  reading  historical  docu- 
ments, etc. ;  in  literature  by  allowing  the 
pupils  to  act  and  recite  the  plays  and 
poems  and  thereby  penetrate  into  their 
deeper  meaning;  in  social  communities 
by  giving  the  pupils  opportunity  to  de- 
velop their  sense  of  refinement  by  means 
of  social  functions ;  in  chemistry,  physics 
and  biology  by  giving  the  pupils  a  deeper 
insight  iiito  natural  laws  by  means  of 
actual  experiments.  All  these  methods 
use  the  activity  that  is  specific  and  natural 
to  the  subject  of  instruction. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  in  accord- 
ance with  our  principle  of  work,  if  in- 
troduction to  some  manual  technique, 
like  writing  or  drawing,  is  prepared  by 
means  of  other  technical  activities,  as, 
for  examr  k  laying  beans  in  rows,  putting 
together  -hi  of  wood  or  clay-modelling. 


Method*  of  the  Industrial  School    55 

At  the  present  time  these  pedagogical 
misconceptions  are  so  general  as  to  be 
able  to  support  large  factories  for  the 
manufacture  of  school  materials.  Even 
Basedow  had  to  acknowledge  before  his 
death  that  making  letters  out  of  dough 
did  not  help  in  learning  to  read  or  write. 
There  are  other  methods  which  seek  to 
divide  up  the  work  as  these  methods  do, 
and  lead  to  a  development  of  percep- 
tion of  form  and  imitation  of  form.  At 
the  same  time  they  do  not  contradict 
the  psychology  of  industrial  education. 
These  are  excellently  set  forth  in  Maria 
Montessori's  "II  Metodo  della  Peda- 
gogia.  Scientifica."  *  ?lere  manual  ac- 
tivity, that  pays  no  attention  to  the  fine 
physical  and  psychical  relations  under- 
lying the  activity,  or  to  the  systematic 
training  of  the  will  and  judgment  in 
connection  with  it,  can  form  no  criterion 

»  English  translation  —  "  The  Montessori  Method  "  —  from 
the  Italian  by  Anne  E.  George.  (New  York,  F.  A.  Stokea 
Cimpany.     1912.) 


0 
1 1,  > 


56     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

for  our  industrial  school,  however  much 
such  activity  may  bear  the  stamp  of 
actual  work. 

Such  manual  occupations  as  we  have 
described  may  be  useful  and  sometimes 
indeed  necessary  as  a  means  to  demon- 
strate some  lesson,  or  to  train  the  senses, 
or  to  satisfy  the  strong  impulse  of  the 
child  for  doing  things,  or  to  enliven  some 
otherwise  dull  lesson.    And  yet  we  do  not 
thereby  introduce  any  new  educational 
principle   into   our   schools.    The   most 
that  we  are  doing  is  to  carry  out  an  old 
principle  that  has  been  terribly  neglected. 
But  we  do  introduce  a  new  educational 
principle,  which  up  till  now  has  been 
foreign  to  our  schools,  when  we  make 
manual  activity  a  systematic  tool  for  the 
training  of  the  will  and  the  sharpening  of 
the  judgment,  and  of  course  only  employ 
it  where  the  nature  of  the  subject  itself 
makes  it  seem  necessary.    This  can  only 
be  accomplished  when  it  leads  the  child 
at  every  stage  to  use  his  inherited  capacity 


■■ 


Methods  of  the  Industrial  School    ^y 

for  expression  to  reproduce  with  precision 
what  he  feels,  sees  and  thinks,  and  when 
at  each  step  ever  greater  demands  in 
exactness  and  skill  are  made. 

Industrial  training  as  a  principle  and 
as  a  special  independent  subject  of  in- 
struction belong  together  as  indispensably 
as  the  blade  and  handle  of  a  knife.  Wher- 
ever the  demand  for  technical  ability  is 
recognized  as  a  principle  underlying  the 
instruction,  then  a  corresponding  tech- 
nical training  should  follow  as  an  absolute 
necessity.  It  is  quite  consistent  to  dis- 
agree entirely  with  industrial  training, 
but  to  recognize  it  as  a  principle  of  method 
and  to  condemn  it  as  an  independent 
subject  of  instruction  is  absolutely  il- 
logical. Since  Pestalozzi's  time  attention 
to  oral  expression  has  been  recognized  as 
a  principle  of  instruction  and  also  as  a 
special  subject  of  instruction.  His  de- 
mand of  "every  lesson  a  language  lesson" 
would  not  have  much  use,  if  there  were 
not  at  the  same  time  special  lessons  for 


« 


!,■ 


i  *>-, 


58     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

training  in  oral  expression.  We  do  not 
only  demand  correctness  in  oral  and 
written  work  in  every  lesson,  but  we 
devote  a  good  bit  of  time  to  special  lang- 
uage lessons.  Now  in  the  same  way  I  set 
up  eight  years  ago  a  principle  that  has 
been  universally  recognized  —  "  No  ob- 
ject lesson  without  drawing."  This  prin- 
ciple would  be  of  doubtful  value  for  the 
development  of  the  ability  to  draw  or  of 
the  aesthetic  sense,  if  we  did  not  at  the 
same  time  have  special  instruction  in 
drawing,  which  systematically  teaches  the 
pupils  certain  technical  matters,  without 
which  their  drawing  would  always  re- 
main clumsy  and  amateurish.  Again,  if 
we  acknowledged  number  as  a  general 
principle  that  did  not  need  special  in- 
struction and  practice  in  manipulation  of 
arithmetical  rules,  we  would  soon  find 
that  the  vague  content  of  the  ideas  of 
number  gained  in  general  instruction 
would  be  absolutely  useless  for  forming 
clear  number  concepts.    Again,  we  re- 


Methods  of  the  Industrial  School    59 

quire  systematic  exercises   to  give   the 
will  power  over  the  control  of  the  muscles. 
Without  such  exercises  our  girls'  dances 
in  the  higher  classes  of  the  elementary- 
school  would  remain  forever  on  the  level 
of  the  free  play  of  the  child.    Now  the  ca- 
pacity for  spatial  expression  as  developed 
by  manual  work,  looked  at  as  a  capacity 
possessed  by  the  mind,  does  not  differ  in 
the  least  from  the  two  other  capacities 
of   oral    expression    and    expression    by 
drawing.     If  any  one  considers  it  of  less 
use  than  these  two  latter  capacities  in 
reference  to  the  ultimate  aim  of  education, 
we  can,  although  with  some  difficulty, 
understand  this  position.     But  if  any  one 
values  it  highly  and  considers  its  culti- 
vation necessary  for  education,  then  he 
must  surely  draw  the  same  consequences 
as  he  has  done  in  reference  to  the  two 
other  capacities  of  oral  expression  and 
expression  through  drawing.     He  should 
consider  it  likewise  worthy  to  be  a  subject 
of  special  instruction.    These  considera- 


6o     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

tions  lead  us  to  consider  now  a  new  fun- 
damental characteristic  of  the  real  in- 
dustrial school  as  a  school  for  the  forma- 
tion of  character. 


^m:^- 


CHAPTER  V 

The  Technical  Teacher  and  Professional 
Industrial  Instruction 

T17HATEVER  the  school  may  take 
VV  up  in  following  out  its  aims,  and 
in  whatever  manner  it  may  arrange  its 
subjects  of  instruction,  the  essential  prin- 
ciple in  the  school  is  to  lay  increasing 
stress  upon  the  careful  carrying-out  of 
all  activity,  by  means  of  which  will, 
understanding  and  sensitivity  are  to  be 
developed.  The  training  of  the  will  must 
lead  to  this  irrevocable  demand,  that  no 
work  shall  leave  the  hands  of  a  pupil 
without  bearing  the  mark  of  intellectual 
or  physical  effort.  This  is  the  great 
difference  between  the  manual  activity 
of  the  ele-nentary  school  and  that  of  the 
kindergarten,  in  which  latter  pure  child's 
play  is  the  moving  force  in  instruction. 

6i 


JM 


62     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 


I 


The  very  worst  influence  in  the  training 
of  the  will  is  exerted,  if  children  are  al- 
lowed during  their  seven  or  eight  years  of 
schooling  to  form  the  habit  in  one,  not  to 
mention  in  all  subjects  of  instruction, 
of  doing  a  thing  "just  about"  or  "al- 
most" correct.  Nothing  leads  to  this 
habit  more  than  the  recognition  of  in- 
dustrial work  merely  as  a  general  prin- 
ciple, although  this  result  is  not  logically 
necessary.  For  in  ninety  cases  out  of  a 
hundred  our  general  principle  sinks  to 
paying  attention  to  mere  trifles  and 
fossilizes  as  we  go  up  the  grades  into 
careless  dilettanteism.  The  whole  train- 
ing of  the  will  is  a  summation  of  infinitely 
many  and  infinitely  small  efforts  of 
voluntary  attention  directed  in  the  same 
way.  In  the  ethical  battles  of  later 
mature  life,  that  man  remains  the  victor 
who  is  able  to  direct  his  voluntary  atten- 
tion again  and  again  to  those  ethical 
motives  which  set  free  the  decision  to  act. 
Now  we  all  know  that  it  is  much  more 


The  Technical  Teacher         63 

difficult  for  children  than  for  adults  to 
concentrate  their  voluntary  attention. 
And  they  are  not  learning  this  difficult 
task  if  they  are  again  and  again  allowed 
to  do  their  manual  work  "almost"  right. 
And  further,  this  is  not  the  only  bad 
result,  but  there  creeps  in  the  habit  of 
being  satisfied  with  their  own  careless 
work,  in  spite  of  all  the  imperfections 
which  it  shows. 

This  danger  can  be  averted  by  system- 
atic industrial  training  through  the  grades. 
It  must  strictly  enforce  care  and  exact- 
ness in  all  the  work,  which  in  turn  must 
be  suitable  to  the  age  of  the  child.  The 
intellectual,  moral  and  manual  habits 
which  are  acquired  by  this  training  are 
unconsciously  carried  over  to  any  manual 
activity  that  may  come  up  in  the  other 
subjects  of  instruction,  and  they  drive 
out  harmful  dilettanteism  here  as  well. 
Children  that  have  been  so  trained 
absolutely  refuse  to  undertake  work  which 
they  can  only  imperfectly  accomplish. 


m 


64     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

The  carefulness  of  expression  that  they 
have  learned  in  their  industrial  training 
they  try  to  carry  over  to  tasks  set  them 
in  other  lessons  in  as  far  as  their  powers 
are  able  to  cope  with  such  tasks. 

Speech  and  gesture,  drawing  and  model- 
ling (with  any  kind  of  material),  are  all 
methods  of  expression.  They  all  serve 
in  the  traini.ig  of  the  will  and  the  judg- 
ment, only  when  systematic  practice 
teaches  the  pupil  to  increase  his  capa  ity 
for  expression  and  accustoms  him  with  the 
greatest  possible  independence  to  seek 
for  the  only  suitable  exprcF  j  for  hk 
thought  or  his  work.  Right  aer(  do  we 
find  the  essence  of  the  principi '  cf  indus- 
trial instruction.  The  direction  .iiat  our 
character  takes  depends  upon  how  we  do 
our  daily  work.  Each  bit  of  superficial 
work  that  leaves  our  hand,  each  time 
we  let  ourselves  say,  "That  is  good 
enough,"  has  an  influence  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  our  will.  Now  as  long  as 
the  child  is  really  playing,  all  doing  by 


The  Technical  Teacher         65 

way  of  suggestion,  i.e.  not   carrying  a 
thing   out   conscientiously,   is   not   only 
allowable  but  is  necessary.     For  in  pure 
play  manual  activity  forms  merely  the 
basis  for  the  free  play  of  imagination. 
The  products  of  any  work  have  in  this 
case  only  a  symbolical  meaning.    They 
are  not  the  aim  of  the  activity.     But  the 
school  must  turn  play  into  work,  and 
here  the  products  of  work  have  real  value. 
Here  they  are  the  declared  purpose  of 
the  activity  itself.     Now  since  character 
is  formed  solely  through  action,  it  must 
be  the  chief  care  of  the  educator  to  see 
that  all  action  should  bear  the  stamp  of 
thorough  reflection,  of  the  greatest  con- 
scientiousness and  of  absolute  honesty. 
It  is  not  of  any  importance  what  we  let 
our   children   do,    by    means    of    what 
technical  instruction  their  manual  skill 
and  capacity  for  expression  is  developed. 
One  or  two  technical  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion are  quite  sufficient.    The  only  thing 
that  we  must  insist  on  is  this,  that  the 


t* 


66     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

subjects  chosen  must  allow  the  develop- 
ment of  ever-increasing  accuracy  that 
can  be  controlled  by  mechanical  means 
by  the  pupil  himself.  It  is  a  crime  to 
set  up  the  principle  of  industrial  training 
not  based  upon  these  two  characteristics 
of  accuracy  and  conscientiousness.  In 
Munich  we  made  experiments  in  indus- 
trial instruction  in  this  sense  of  the  term, 
and  we  found  that  even  with  six-year- 
olds  this  demand  for  the  greatest  possible 
accuracy  did  not  in  the  least  interfere 
with  the  joy  of  the  work,  but  on  the  con- 
trary it  seemed  to  increase  enthusiasm 
for  work  from  month  to  month.  This 
has  convinced  me  that  from  the  very 
beginning  we  must  carry  out  the  work  in 
this  spirit. 

This  being  the  ground  upon  which  our 
principle  of  industrial  training  stands,  we 
must  naturally  conclude  that  from  the 
very  beginning  the  free  activity  of  man- 
ual and  psychical  forces  must  be  made 
systematic.    He  who  cannot  control  the 


i 


^^"^  ■- 


The  Technical  Teacher         67 

means  of  expression  will  never  be  able 
to  express  the  simplest  of  things.  Me- 
chanical practice  in  the  systematic  use 
of  the  means  of  expression  is  a  pre- 
requisite for  useful  free  activity  or  for  any 
productive  work.  And  for  this  we  must 
make  use  of  the  instinct  of  imitation. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  those  men 
who  possessed  the  greatest  gift  for  ex- 
pression, I  mean  our  most  famous  artists, 
were  at  the  beginning  of  their  career 
practically  nothing  but  imitators  (e.g. 
Diirer,  Raphael).  Their  strength  de- 
veloped by  means  of  conscientious  and 
untiring  study  of  the  means  and  methods 
of  expression  employed  by  others,  until 
ultimately  they  gained  that  freedom  and 
power  that  gave  to  us  absolutely  new 
works  of  art.  The  pupil  must  first 
have  gained  sufficient  skill  in  the  use  of 
the  means  of  expression  before  the 
teacher  should  give  way  to  the  initiative 
of  the  pupil,  and  even  then  this  should 
be    done   gradually.    And    this    is    the 


68     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 


w 


second  fundamental  rule  in  carrying  out 
the  principle  of  industrial  education. 
Of  course  this  rule  must  not  be  taken  in 
the  sense  of  prohibiting  all  free  un- 
hindered activity  of  the  child.  This  free, 
unhindered  activity  is  at  the  basis  of 
all  play.  It  is  useful  for  stimulating 
thought  about  more  serious  activities; 
and  it  may  occasionally  be  made  use  of 
to  let  the  child  feel  his  deficiency  in  con- 
trolling the  means  of  expression.  For 
example,  in  the  lower  and  middle  grades, 
besides  systematic  work  in  drawing,  it  is 
quite  good  now  and  again  to  let  the  child 
give  full  reins  to  his  initiative  and  dcsiw 
what  he  likes.  Yet  we  must  never  for- 
get that  constant  illustrating  of  stories 
and  unsystematic  drawing  will  very  easily 
spoil  such  slight  ability  for  drawing  as 
most  children  possess. 

We  have  up  till  now  laid  down  some 
such  general  demand  as  this,  that  for 
the  sake  of  the  formation  of  character 
the  principle  of  industrial  training  must 


The  Technical  Teacher         69 

be  carried  out  in  mental  and  physical 
work.  Further,  our  aim  for  the  elemen- 
tary school  demands  that  there  be  in- 
troduced special  industrial  courses  for  the 
careful  development  of  the  purely  practi- 
cal and  manual  capacities  of  the  child. 
But  it  would  seem  impossible  to  demand 
of  oar  teachers  that  they  be  further 
burdened  with  the  acquiring  and  the 
teaching  of  some  special  industrial  sub- 
ject. What  conclusion  must  we  draw 
from  all  this  ?  Simply  this,  that  in  our 
industrial  schools  we  must  have  besides 
our  ordinary  theoretically  trained 
teachers  a  second  class  of  teachers  who 
have  been  technically  trained. 

No  other  way  is  possible.  For  the 
highest  grades  of  the  elementary  school 
such  a  teacher  can  be  carefully  selected 
directly  out  of  some  actual  industry  and 
given  some  pedagogical  instruction  later 
on.  In  Munich,  Paris  and  Stockholm 
this  scheme  has  been  tried  and  hat 
proved  workable.    But  this  is  not  a  per- 


i 


70     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

manent   solution  of  the   problem.    We 
must  ultimately  have  technical  instruc- 
tors with  the  same  normal  school  training 
as   the   ordinary   teacher   has.    This   is 
quite  possible  at  any  rate  for  the  purposes 
of  the  elementary  school  (for  instruction 
in  continuation  schools  this  would  not 
be    sufficient).     The    manual    training 
high  schools  of  the  United  States,  which 
prepare  technical  instructors  for  the  ele- 
mentary schools  as  well  as  for  the  manual 
schools,  prove  my  contention  sufficiently. 
Such  a  normal  school  for  technical  in- 
structors would  have  to  lay  most  stress 
upon  a  practical  technical  training,  in- 
cluding physics  and  chemistry,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  thorough  grounding  in  peda- 
gogy, psychology  and  ethics.    The  nor- 
mal   school    for    theoretical    instructors 
would  include  as  it  does  now  a  training 
in  pedagogy  and  the  usual  subjects  of 
instruction.     Both    schools    can    easily 
come  under  the  same  institution,  for  the 
chief  subject  of   instruction,  i.e.   peda- 


« 1 


The  Technical  Teacher         71 

gogy  with  all  its  dependent  subjects,  is 
common  to  both  groups  of  teachers.    At 
the  same  time   it  would  be  of  infinite 
value  to  the  ordinary  teacher  voluntarily 
to  give  some  of  her  time  to  a  training  in 
some  manual  work  in  order  to  develop 
her  manual  skill.    Of  course  the  technical 
instructor   will   teach    all   the   technical 
subjects    in    the    elementary    school    as 
well  as  drawing  and  laboratory  work  in 
physics  and  chemistry.    Yet  in  as  far 
as  the  rest  of  the  school  work  is  based  on 
the  principle  of  industrial  training,  i.e, 
in  as  far  as  industrial  instruction  enters 
into   all   the  other  instruction,   manual 
activity  will  certainly  play  a  part  in  the 
work   of    the   theoretical   teacher.     She 
cannot  afford  to  neglect  manual  skill, 
even  although  she  is  not  so  technically 
trained  as  to  be  able  to  conduct  with 
sufficient  thoroughness  the  special  tech- 
nical instruction.     If  this  way  is  chosen 
for  the  education  of  technical   instruc- 
tors,  no   new   element   will   enter   into 


if* 


72     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

the  elementary  school,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  training  of  instructors  for  special 
purposes  can  be  much  more  thoroughly- 
accomplished.  It  has  always  been  a 
puzzle  to  me  how  elementary  teachers,  in 
contradistinction  to  high  school  teachers, 
are  able  in  one  and  the  same  breath  to 
demand  instruction  in  new  departments 
of  knowledge  and  technique  and  at  the 
same  time  an  essential  deepening  of  their 
education.  These  two  demands  are  really 
diametrically  opposed  to  each  other. 

This  demand  for  technical  teachers 
contributes  no  new  factor  to  the  ele- 
mentary school.  We  have  had  the  same 
thing  in  our  girls'  schools  for  at  least  a 
century,  where  technical  lady  instruc- 
tors and  ordinary  teachers  have  bewi 
working  together.  France,  England, 
Sweden  and  the  United  States  have 
technical  teachers  in  their  boys'  schools 
as  well.  Where  there  are  no  special 
normal  schools  for  technical  teachers,  as 
in  France,  professional  technical  workers 


The  Technical  Teacher         73 

are  often  appointed  to  give  instruction  in 
the  higher  grades. 

In  the  eighteenth  general  meeting  of 
the  Bavarian  Teachers'  Association  at 
Regensburg,  Gutmann  said,  "The  great- 
est mistake  that  can  be  made  is  to  intro- 
duce into  our  schools  in  addition  to 
the  conventional  subjects  of  instruction 
technical  subjects  taught  by  technical 
workers."  This  conscientious  but  ob- 
stinate opponent  of  the  industrial  school 
knows  very  well  that  our  normal  school 
course  cannot  support  any  more  subjects 
of  instruction.  The  curriculum  needs 
rather  to  be  lightened.  And  yet  rather 
than  draw  the  conclusion  that  the  burden 
could  better  be  borne  by  two  pairs  of 
shoulders,  he  disapproves  of  the  idea  of 
introducing  any  kind  of  professional  in- 
dustial  instructors.  If  that  is  so,  then 
educational  fallacies  on  the  part  of  boards 
of  education  have  led  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  technical  teachers  for  dressmak- 
ing and  cookery.    We  must  banish  from 


74     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

the  German  schools  their  numerous  draw- 
ing teachers,  from  the  Swedish  schools 
their  excellent  gymnastic  instructors, 
from  the  American  schools  their  numerous 
singing  teachers,  and  all  the  different  types 
of  special  teachers  for  housekeeping 
such  as  I  saw  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh. 
According  to  this  man*s  reasoning,  we 
must  make  out  of  every  teacher  a  skilled 
mechanic,  a  gymnast,  a  singer,  a  drawer, 
and  so  on  in  addition  to  the  usual  de- 
mands that  he  shall  study  science,  geog- 
raphy, history  and  languages.  The  Ger- 
man teacher  must  understand  this  neces- 
sity for  special  technical  instructors,  and 
unless  he  is  willing  to  welcome  them  he 
cannot  hope  for  a  deeper  training  in  his 
own  department.  The  industrial  school 
is  the  school  of  the  future.  It  will  come 
and  it  must  come  in  spite  of  all  opposi- 
tion. Whether  it  will  develop  into  a 
blessing  or  a  curse  for  our  people  will 
depend  upon  whether  we  install  tech- 
nical teachers   in  our  schools  who  will 


The  Technical  Teacher         75 

bring  with  them  conscientious,  honest 
manual  work  which  they  have  learned 
how  to  perform  through  long  years  of 
experience.  The  technically  trained 
teacher  is  the  logical  consequence  of  the 
demand  that  our  elementary  school  should 
provide  for  a  training  towards  ethical 
character  in  the  great  mass  of  children, 
whose  intellectual  powers  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  make  intellectual  work  alone 
the  school  for  tbs  fc  mation  of  character. 
Our  special  cu  auxiliary  schools,  in 
which  very  often  the  instruction  in  man- 
ual work  never  rises  above  the  level  of 
play,'  could  also  be  much  better  organized, 
if  we  could  supplant  the  present-day 
dilettante  by  the  technically  trained  in- 
structor. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Summary  and  Conclusion 

IT  is  the  great  desire  of  all  earnest 
reformers  of  our  day  to  make  the 
elementary  school  an  instrument  for  the 
formation  of  character,  even  for  the 
great  majority  of  intellectually  weak 
individuals.  The  experience  of  past  cen- 
turies has  taught  us  and  is  still  teaching 
us  that  the  cultivation  of  that  memory 
knowledge,  which  is  the  predominating 
spirit  in  our  present-day  elementary  and 
high  schools,  will  never  lead  to  the  build- 
ing-up of  that  kind  of  individual  which 
modern  states  have  more  need  of  every 
day.  That  experience  has  taught  us 
that  emphasis  must  be  laid  less  upon  the 
cramming  in  of  knowledge  and  more 
upon  the  development  of  intellectual, 
moral   and  manual   abilities;    that  our 

76 


m 


Summary  and  Conclusion        77 

schools  must  develop  the  mechanical 
abilities,  inculcating  at  the  same  time  a 
true  knowledge  of  their  uses,  so  that  we 
may  have  at  all  times  honest  and  con- 
scientious workers  to  carry  out  and  per- 
fect the  work  conceived  by  the  creative 
mind;  and  lastly  we  have  learned  that 
this  way  is  the  only  way  to  educate  the 
greater  part  of  the  nation  so  as  to  pro- 
duce men  and  women  endowed  with 
strong  and  honest  wills. 

The  industrial  school  is  an  organization 
which  places  the  formation  of  character 
above  everything  else.  Just  because  this 
is  its  chief  purpose,  it  tries  to  arrange  a 
curriculum  that  will  banish  from  the 
schools  the  overcrowding  and  the  super- 
ficialness  of  knowledge  that  goes  along 
with  this.  The  organization  of  such  a 
school  will  arrange  its  instruction  so  as 
to  allow  the  child  to  get  most  of  its 
knowledge  through  experience,  and  by 
this  very  means  builds  up  a  strong  defense 
against  the  overburdening  by  too  much 


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M  APPLIED  IIVMGE     Inc 

S^  '653  East  Moin  Street 

r.S  Rochester,  New  York        U609      USA 

JSS  (716)   482  -  0300 -Phone 

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78     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

traditional  knowledge.  The  idea  of  the 
industrial  school  is  by  means  of  a  mini- 
mum of  knowledge  to  build  up  a  useful 
citizen  endowed  with  a  maximum  of  skill, 
ability  and  joy  in  work. 

Starting  from  the  highest  outward  ethi- 
cal good  of  a  community,  from  the  ideal 
cultural  and  just  state  of  ethics,  we  have 
found  that  each  elementary  school  has 
three  and  only  three  principal  problems 
to  solve : 

1.  Preparation  of  the  individual  for 
his  future  vocation  in  the  community. 

2.  The  making  ethical  of  this  vocation. 

3.  To  make  the  individual  able  to 
join  in  the  common  work  of  raising  the 
ethical  standard  of  the  community  of 
which  he  is  a  member. 

This  determines  the  ethical  side  of  the 
educational  duty  of  school.  This  de- 
termines the  direction  which  the  school 
has  to  take  in  the  formation  of  character. 
Two  chief  conclusions  follow :  The  prin- 
ciple of  industrial  communities  and  the 


Summary  and  Conclusion       79 

recognition  of  industrial  training  as  a 
special  subject  of  instruction.  We  have 
seen  that  this  demand  for  the  formation  of 
character  is  a  demand  for  the  training  of 
a  strong  will  and  a  clear  judgment  and 
that  this  requires  freedom  and  variety 
of  activity  in  all  subjects  of  instruction. 
In  all  departments  of  empirical  knowl- 
edge we  must  abandon  the  methods  of 
present-day  instruction  and  change  them 
into  methods  of  personal  observation 
and  experience.  Further,  the  principle 
of  industrial  training  in  as  far  as  it  in- 
cludes manual  activity  must  not  be  me- 
chanically carried  over  and  applied  to  the 
conventional  subjects  of  traditional 
knowledge.  We  have  further  seen  that 
this  principle  of  industrial  training,  if  it 
is  not  to  lead  to  mere  superficial  work  and 
thereby  become  dangerous,  but  is  to  be 
really  useful  in  the  formation  of  character, 
requires  recognition  as  a  special  subject  of 
instruction  and  requires  also  a  new  type  of 
teacher,  the  technically  trained  instructor. 


,r- 


8o     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

Last  of  all  we  have  been  taught  this 
ultimate  and  most  important  fact,  that 
the  basis  of  all  training  of  character  lies 
in  the  development  of  a  sound  judgment, 
or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  in  the  ability 
to  think  logically.  This  can  only  be 
attained  by  independent  intellectual  work. 
Independent  intellectual  work  is  more  a 
characteristic  of  the  industrial  school 
than  is  independent  manual  work.  Only, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  the  boundaries  of  such 
work  cannot  be  set  very  wide.  Neverthe- 
less, this  remains  the  most  essential  char- 
acteristic of  the  industrial  school.  Man- 
ual work  even  in  the  elementary  school 
must  encourage  independent  intellectual 
activity.  This  necessitates  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  old  methods  of  dispensing 
knowledge  in  favor  of  an  active  working- 
up  of  all  material  for  knowledge,  where- 
ever  and  as  far  as  it  is  possible.  This 
means  an  essential  curtailment  of  the 
number  of  subjects  in  our  curriculum. 


Summary  and  Conclusion        8i 

the  introduction  of  suitable  places  for 
intellectual  work  and  of  libraries  for 
history,  geography,  natural  history  and 
nature  study,  and  lastly  a  corresponding 
intellectual  training  for  our  ordinary 
and  for  our  technical  instructors.  To 
change  our  habits  of  empirical  thinking 
into  habits  of  logical  or  scientific  think- 
ing —  that  is  the  fundamental  character- 
istic of  the  industrial  school  just  as  it  is  a 
fundamental  necessity  in  the  formation 
of  real  character. 

That  exhausts  for  me  the  necessary 
attributes  of  the  concept  of  the  indus- 
trial school.  We  can  see  at  once  that 
this  new  school  does  not  mean  a  com- 
plete break  with  the  past,  that  it  does 
not  demand  the  impossible  and  that  all 
the  good  that  our  present  schools  bring 
us  will  find  ample  room  in  the  school  of 
the  future.  Any  other  demands  that 
the  new  school  may  make  will  come  from 
the  didactical  side.  Now  didactical  ques- 
tions are  partly  questions  of  child  psy- 


J 

M 

1  : 

!! 

4i^ 

i 

\i: 


82     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

chology,  partly  questions  of  opinion, 
partly  questions  that  depend  upon  local, 
temporal,  economic  or  other  conditions. 
I  cannot  enter  into  all  these  didactical 
considerations.  I  shall  only  touch  upon 
one  of  them,  the  question  of  the  concen- 
tration of  the  whole  school  instruction. 
In  principle,  this  question  is  answered  by 
the  demand  that  the  school  shall  be  the 
place  of  preparation  for  the  future  voca- 
tion of  the  pupil.  This  may  of  course 
mean  very  little  in  the  elementary  schools 
of  a  city,  where  the  pupils  of  one  and  the 
same  class  will  gravitate  to  the  most 
various  kinds  of  manual  work,  which 
cannot  from  the  beginning  be  predicted. 
It  may  on  the  other  hand  mean  a  gr^at 
deal  in  a  small  rural  community  where 
boys  and  girls  are  destined  to  follow  some 
agricultural  work.  Every  one  knows  that 
concentration  is  a  prerequisite  for  suc- 
cess. That  does  not  apply  to  that  super- 
ficial concentration  of  many  of  our  school 
schedules,  but  rather  to  the  inner  con- 


Summary  and  Conclusion        83 

centration   which    during   one    and   the 
same   lesson   direct     .  .s   activity  to   as 
few  things  as  possible.     It  is  a  distortion 
of  the  idea  of  concentration,  however,  to 
give  up  the  separate  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion and  to  try  to  mass  the  whole  material 
together  into  a  purely  arbitrarily  arranged 
system.     All   human   knowledge  has   in 
the  course  of  time  divided  itself  up  into 
independent  but  well-connected  depart- 
ments arising  from  the  organization  of 
our  psychical  functions.     If  we  keep  to 
the  arrangement  that  is  inherent  in  the 
knowledge  itself,  we  will  get  out  of  it 
whatever   educative   power   it  possesses, 
and  only  in  that  way  will   it  help  to 
develop   the   clearness   of  judgment   so 
necessary  for  the  formation  of  character. 
It  is  only  the  man  who  has  no  idea  of 
the  educative  power  that  lies  in  a  well- 
rounded,    closed   system   of   knowledge, 
who  would  smash  to  pieces  this  crystal- 
like building   with   the   bright   light  of 
knovledge   shining   through   it  and  set 


i  ' 


84     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 

in  its  place  for  the  purposes  of  his  curric- 
ulum the  heap  of  broken  glass,  through 
which  only  a  diffuse  and  dim,  uncertain 
light  can  shine.  Even  in  the  special 
i'.  iustrial  subjects  the  method  and  course 
(  instruction  must  be  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  subject  itself.  It  is 
senseless  to  interrupt  in  its  systematic 
development  the  regular  course  of  a  sub- 
ject undertr' .  n  to  train  the  will  and  give 
practice  in  elementary  mechanical  pro- 
cesses of  work  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
arranging  some  so-called  concentration 
with  the  other  subjects  of  instruction. 
Concentration  must  never  disturb  the 
peaceful  development  of  ca'..  *'^*  •«?  that 
will  later  become  necessa'  .  '.iis  of 
course  does  not  by  any  meano  exclude 
manual  activity  in  other  subjects.  A 
systematic  course  in  drawing  must  go  on 
in  the  way  mapped  out  for  it  according 
to  psychological  laws  without  paying 
any  attention  to  other  subjects.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  drawing  ought  to 


Summary  and  Conclusion        85 

be  used  as  a  means  of  expression  in  all 
other  subjects  from  the  very  beginning. 
This  shows  in  general  outline  the  or- 
ganization of  our  future  school.  I  do 
not  think  we  need  feel  in  helping  with  all 
our  might  to  pave  the  way  for  the  de- 
velopment of  such  a  school  that  we  are 
in  any  sense  of  the  word  revolutionists. 
I  feel  that  we  are  rather  helping  to  vic- 
tory old,  very  old,  pedagogical  demands, 
by  striving  in  our  public  schools  to  exert 
some  influence  upon  that  great  mass  of 
people,  for  whom  exclusively  intellectual 
work  can  never  be  the  sole  means  of  edu- 
cation. Above  all,  I  have  the  feeling  that 
in  our  endeavour  we  are  working  in  the 
spirit  of  the  man  whom  we  have  praised  so 
much  and  understood  so  little,  who  told 
us  so  often  in  "  Leonhard  and  Gertrude," 
in  his  letters  to  Heinrich  Gessner  and  in 
his  last  book,  that  only  work  in  the  child's 
environment  gives  the  elementary  school 
its  educational  power.  I  venture  further 
to  say,  even  although  we  find  it  nowhere 


86     Idea  of  the  Industrial  School 


til 


I  • 


ul 


H 


expressly  stated  in  his  works,  that  Pes- 
talozzi  was  of  the  firm  conviction  that 
vocational  education  was  the  gateway  to 
the  real  education  of  mankind. 

Three  generations  have  passed  away 
since  his  death.  His  work  still  awaits 
completion.  In  a  speech  on  January  12, 
1818  to  his  house,  he  said  :  "I  believe  I 
am  right  in  saying  that  the  century  which 
saw  at  its  beginning  the  start  of  our 
educational  activities  will  see  at  its  end 
the  uninterrupted  continuation  of  our 
work  in  the  hands  of  men  who  will  give 
thanks  to  the  united  efforts  of  our  house 
for  their  opinions  and  for  their  educational 
methods."  The  sands  of  thoughtlessness 
have  piled  up  mountains  over  the  truths 
that  once  filled  and  stirred  the  heart  of 
that  tireless  worker  for  the  education  of 
mankind.  But  real  truths  like  spirits 
rise  up  again  and  again  from  out  their 
graves  and  wa.ider  up  and  down  and  dis- 
turb the  heart  of  man,  until  they  ulti- 
mately find  peace  and  salvation  in  their 


Summary  and  Conclusion       87 

realization  in  real  life.  All  those  of  us 
who  work  with  true  earnestness  and  un- 
flagging energy  to  pave  the  way  for  the 
school  of  the  future,  who  keep  always  in 
mind  "the  father  of  the  elementary 
school,"  are  helping  to  bring  the  desired 
salvation  to  these  spirits.  Let  us  hope 
that  the  end  of  the  twentieth  century 
will  see  perfected  and  will  be  able  to 
enjoy  what  he  in  desperate  struggles  and 
in  dire  necessity  started  to  fight  for  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth. 


=?v 


■  '       v^' 


h 


APPENDIX 

An  Example  of  Indust  '     Training  in 
the  Elementary  Scht*  •     u  Munich 

INDUSTRIAL  training  in  the  spirit 
described  in  the  text  has  been  or- 
ganized in  Munich  in  all  the  continuation 
schools  and  in  the  highest  classes  of  the 
elementary  schools.  The  state  board  of 
education  agreed  to  the  carrying  out  of 
the  plan  in  all  the  classes,  but  the  local 
board  has  Mp  till  now  refused  to  grant 
the  relati\  /  small  amount  of  money 
required  for  this  purpose.  Last  year 
they  agreed  to  give  a  small  amount  for 
'he  organization  of  a  series  of  four  trial 
classes.  The  refusal  to  grant  money  for 
a  complete  organization  of  this  scheme, 
as  was  carried  out  in  the  continuation 
schools,  can  be  explained  partly  by  un- 
warranted fear  of  the  expense,  and  partly 

89 


' 


j 


vil 


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90 


Appendix 


by  warranted  anxiety  to  keep  up  the 
standards    of   the   present-day    "book" 
school.    This   anxiety  was  perhaps  oc- 
casioned by  the  numerous  distorted  ideas 
and  propositions,  which  the  literature  on 
industrial  training  can   show,   and   also 
by  the  absolutely  false  ideas  of  the  es- 
sence of  industrial  training  which  have 
been  common  in  the  whole  of  Germany 
during  the  last  four  years.    This  refusal 
on  the  part  of  the  authorities  I  do  not 
consider  as  a  misfortune,  so  long  as  the 
trial  classes  are  earnestly  and  sincerely 
supported.     For  the  spirit  of  the  indus- 
trial school  demands  an  essentially  dif- 
ferent  type   of  normal   school   training 
from  the  one  in  vogue  at  present.     As 
long  as  the  instructors   themselves   are 
educated  in  "book"  schools,  there  can 
only  be  a  few  who  will  be  able  by  means 
of  their  own  force  of  character  to  enter 
into  the  spirit  of  the  industrial  school. 
But  if  the  normal  schools  are  once  filled 
with  this   spirit,   it  will   be  transferred 


Appendix 


91 


to  the  elementary  schools  without  op- 
position. The  expenses  incidental  to 
this  kind  of  school  are  not  so  great  as  to 
prove  any  real  hindrance  to  it.  This 
has  been  proved  in  the  organization  of 
the  two  trial  classes  which  are  now  held 
in  Munich,  and  which  I  shall  now  briefly 
describe. 

If  the  industrial  school  really  denotes 
an  essential  advance,  if  the  carrying  out  of 
the  principle  is  to  increase  the  active 
interest  of  the  pupil  in  all  subjects  of 
instruction,  then  we  must  of  necessity 
achieve  in  our  industrial  school,  with  less 
time  devoted  to  formal  instruction,  as 
much  as  has  been  achieved  in  our  present- 
day  school,  which  devotes  much  more 
time  to  formal  lessons  and  very  little 
to  active  work  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
Accordingly  the  time  for  formal  instruc- 
tion in  the  first  and  second  grades  was 
in  the  two  experimental  classes  shortened 
to  four  or  five  hours.  Again,  it  was 
necessary  to  divide  the  classes,  which  con- 


92 


Appendix 


,H  f 


til 


n 


tained  forty-four  and  fifty  children  re- 
spectively, into  two  divisions  for  a  great 
many  of  the  lessons,  so  that  each  division 
could  be  taught  independently.  For  the 
actual  working  up  of  new  ideas  and  the 
manual  activity  necessary  in  many  sub- 
jects of  instruction  could  only  be  success- 
fully carried  out  with  small  classes.  An 
absolute  division  of  each  class,  i.e.  the 
setting  up  of  a  rule  that  no  class  contain 
more  than  twenty-two  or  twenty-five 
children,  is  by  no  means  necessary.  If 
it  were  so,  no  board  of  education  at  the 
present  time  could  seriously  consider  the 
introduction  of  the  industrial  school.  It 
is  useless  to  point  to  the  small  classes  in 
Sweden  or  Denmark  or  in  some  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  relatively  small 
salary  offered  to  teachers  in  those  lands 
makes  the  introduction  of  small  classes 
much  easier  than  is  the  case  in  the  large 
cities  of  Germany  with  their  relatively 
high  salaries.  Now  a  competent  salary  for 
the  teacher,  making  his  position  secure  and 


Appendix  93 

giving  him  joy  in  his  work,  is  much  more 
important  for  the  spirit  of  the  industrial 
school  than  the  adoption  of  a  very  small 
maximum  number  of  pupils  per  class. 
The  adoption  of  this  latter  rule  would 
at  once  double  the  common  school  ex- 
penses of  a  city  like  Munich.  Such  a 
small  maximum  is  also  by  no  means 
necessary  for  the  establishment  of  the 
industrial  school.  For  this  school  has 
not  only  to  introduce  the  child  to  the 
world  of  knowledge  but  also  to  control 
the  practice  of  the  knowledge  and 
accomplishments.  Now  in  practising 
something  the  number  of  pupils  working 
together  is  not  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Even  in  introducing  them  to  new  knowl- 
edge there  are  certain  subjects  of  in- 
struction where  at  the  same  time  forty 
or  fifty  pupils  can  be  handled,  I  mean 
in  such  traditional  subjects  which  will 
always  have  to  be  taught  by  means  of 
words  and  books,  and  where  the  book 
and  the  thinking  over  its  content  will 


i 


94 


Appendix 


form  the  whole  intellectual  work.  To 
this  group  belong  history,  religion,  cer- 
tain parts  of  language  instruction  and 
certain  parts  of  geography. 

The  division  of  the  classes  was  made 
for  two  periods  of  object  lesson  work, 
two  periods  of  arithmetic  and  two  of 
writing,  so  that  while  the  pupils  had 
roughly  seventeen  periods,  the  teaching 
was  spread  over  twenty-three  periods. 
The  two  divisions  were  called  A  and  B. 
Division  A  came  to  school  at  9  a.m.  and 
division  B  at  10  a.m.  From  10  to  11.30 
both  divisions  worked  together.  At  1 1 .30 
A  was  dismissed,  while  B  remained  until 
12.30,  receiving  that  instruction  which  had 
been  given  to  A  from  9  to  10  a.m.  In 
the  afternoons  of  Monday  and  Thursday 
there  was  one  hour  school  for  each  divi- 
sion :  A  from  2  to  3  p.m.  ;  B  from  2.40 

to  3.40  P.M. 

A  copy  of  the  weekly  schedule  is  printed 
on  page  96.  The  following  points  are 
to  be  noted  :  The  length  of  each  period 


Appendix 


95 


is  put  after  the  subject  in  brackets. 
Pauses  between  lessons  are  not  shown. 
The  subjects  of  instruction  in  heavy  type 
are  those  given  to  A  and  B  together. 
Division  B  has  of  cou  e  the  same  sub- 
jects of  instruction  from  11.30  to  12.30 
as  A  has  from  9  to  ^'"•.  In  other  words, 
division  A  had  school  from  9  to  11.30 
and  B  from  10  to  12.30  every  morning; 
besides  this,  on  Mondays,  and  Thurstiays, 
A  had  school  from  2  to  3  p.m.  and  B  from 
2.40  to  3.40  P.M.  Only  on  Wednesdays 
and  Saturdays  were  the  two  divisions 
taught  together  from  9  to  11.30  a.m. 
Besides  this  A  had  from  11.30  to  12  on 
Wednesdays  and  B  from  11.30  to  12  on 
Saturdays.  On  four  afternoons  in  the 
week  there  was  no  school. 

The  cr'Utent  of  each  subject  of  instruc- 
tion required  to  follow  the  schedule  au- 
thorized by  the  minister  '^  education 
for  all  the  common  schoo.  in  Munich. 
This  proved  no  hindrance  for  the  carry- 
ing out   of  the    idea   of  the   industrial 


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Appendix 


97 


8chcx)l.  The  only  diiference  in  these 
trial  classes  was  the  provision  for  real 
work  in  connection  with  the  object  lesson. 
I  will  give  here  a  brief  summary  of  the 
work  of  the  first  grade  in  each  subject. 
The  second  grade  was  only  organized 
at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year 
1911-1912. 

a.  Object  lessons  including  drawing  and 
manual  work. 

This  endeavoured  to  make  tb*;  personal 
experiences  of  the  child  the  starting-point 
and  the  centre  for  his  activity.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Munich  schedule  it  was  the 
business  of  the  object  lesson  by  means  of 
sharpening  and  practising  the  senses  to 
awaken  and  encourage  thoughtful  ob- 
servation, to  explain  ideas  already  pos- 
sessed, to  increase  the  store  of  ideas,  to 
arrange  them  and  to  form  new  and  funda- 
mental ideas  and  concepts.  The  personal 
experiences,  that  were  made  the  basis  of 
our  object  lessons,  were  taken  partly 
out  of  the  practical   life  of  the  school 


98 


Appendix 


and  partly  from  the  home  life  of  the 
children. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year 
actual   manual   work  was   preceded   by 
exercises  for  the  sharpening  of  the  senses. 
These  exercises  were  taken  partly  ifom 
Montessori's    book,    "II    Metodo    della 
Pedagogia  Scientifica,"  and  were  carried 
out  generally  in  the  nature  of  a  game. 
Of  course  during  the  whole  year  they 
were  never  entirely  neglected  and  were 
arranged  at  certain  times  in  connection 
with    certain    activities.    They   covered 
the  recognition  of  colors  and  forms,  of 
tones  according  to  their  pitch  and  inten- 
sity, the  judgment  of  the  weight  of  dif- 
ferent materials,  the  acquisition  of  tact- 
ual ideas  of  the  most  varying  materials 
and  lastly  the  control  of  movements  and 
the  localization  of  sensations  of  move- 
ment.    A    great    number    of    materials 
served  this  purpose.     The  work,  which 
was  brought  into  the  closest  connection 
with  the  object  lessons,  included  sewing, 


Appendix 


99 


knitting,    basket    weaving,    woodwork, 
gardening  and  the   so-called  household 
work.    Boys  and  girls  were  instructed  in 
the  same  work,  so  that  the  boys  learned 
sewing  and  knitting  and  the  girls  wood- 
work.   Other  hand  work  was  occasion- 
ally used,  e.g.  modelling  in  clay,  folding 
paper   for   special    purposes,    cardboard 
work  and  weaving  on  hand  looms.    No 
special  attention,  however,  was  paid  to 
these  latter,  so  as  not  to  make  the  num- 
ber  of   occupations   too   numerous.    A 
thorough  training  in  some  few  activities 
was  deemed  more  desirable.    The  activi- 
ties we  concentrated  upon  were  chosen 
because  they  approximated  more  closely 
to  the  family  life  of  the  child.    As  soon 
as  it  was  possible,  the  children  were  or- 
ganized from  the   standpoint  of  an   in- 
dustrial community,  i.e.  from  the  stand- 
point of   service   and  help   among   the 
children  themselves   and  with  the  idea 
of  working  together  for  a  common  aim  or 
purpose.    The   method  of  carrying  this 


li 


100  Appendix 

out  was  of  course  different  from   tliat 
of  the  kindergarten.    In  the  elementa-y 
school  it  can  never  be  the  ch.ef  purpose 
merely  to  keep  the  children  busy  .n  a 
sensible  manner.    We  must  a.m  at  sys- 
tematically increasing  manual  dexterity 
in  order  to  train  the  will  to  more  and  more 
careful    work    and    thereby    gradually 
change  the  instinct  of  play  mto  one  of 
work     Certain  definite  departments  of 
work  must  always  be  favoured  m  the 
schedule,  however  varying  the  method  of 
activity  may  be  according  "the  dis- 
position of  the  teacher  and  child  or  ac- 
cording to  the  capacities  of  the  children, 
or  the  materials  at  disposal.    Again  even 
within  certain  departments  of  work  it  is 
wise  to  restrict  the  number  of  manual 
activities  to  a  few.  so  that  during  the 
first  school  year  they  may  be  able  to 
reach  some  degree  of  exactness.    We  can 
also  in  a  way  test  whether  the  few  chosen 
departments  of  work  correspond  to  the 
physical  and  mental  needs  of  the  child. 


Appendix 


lOI 


This  can  be  done  by  watching  whether 
the  majority  of  the  children,  when  outside 
the  influence  of  the  school  and  merely  in 
accordance  with  their  instinct  of  imita- 
tion, seek  out  and  make  use  of  similar 
activities  in  their  work  at  home  and  in 

their  play. 

The  manner  in  which  manual  activity 
was  brought  into  connection  with  the  con- 
ventional themes  of  the  object  lesson  can 
be  seen  from  the  following  summary  :  — 

First  Lesson.  The  Gymnasium  and 
the  Playground.  The  making  of  wooden 
rods  with  pointed  ends,  of  ladders  and  of 
handles  for  apparatus,  and  other  similar 

things. 

Second  Lesson.  The  Street.  Con- 
struction of  wooden  blocks,  a  wooden 
cupboard,  a  simple  wagon  made  out  of 
bobbins  and  small  pieces  of  board. 

Third  Lesson.  The  Garden  in  Autumn. 
The  construction  of  wooden  supports  for 
flowers  or  bushes.  The  sewing  of  seed 
bags  made  of  gauze. 


102  Appendix 

Fourth  Lesson.  Christmas.  The 
making  of  a  small  bag  for  presents  or  of 
a  present  such  as  a  bag  for  serviettes. 
The  construction  of  wooden  building 
blocks  —  rectangular  and  "angular  col- 
umns. 

Fifth  Lesson.  Snow  and  Ice.  The 
construction  of  a  wooden  sleigh  and  the 
weaving  of  a  seat  out  of  basket  work. 

Sixth  Lesson.  At  the  Dressmaker's. 
The  construction  of  a  wooden  metre 
stick  and  a  T-square.  The  preparation 
of  models  for  dolls'  dresses  and  the  sew- 
ing of  the  same  according  to  the  models. 
Seventh  Lesson.  Easter.  The  colour- 
ing of  Easter  eggs. 

Eighth  Lesson.  The  School  Garden 
in  Spring.  The  construction  of  flower 
boxes  and  a  wooden  fellis  fence  for  same. 
The  sowing  of  seeds  and  the  planting  of 
flowers.  The  weaving  of  a  flower  bas- 
ket and  a  fruit  baskei. 

Ninth  Lesson.  The  Fruit  Market. 
The  modelling  of  various  fruits. 


Appendix  103 

Besides  these  activities,  household  work 
was  also  practised.  This  inc!  ided  keep- 
ing the  school-room  and  workshop  clean 
and  tidy,  brushing,  dusting,  washing 
and  decorating,  and  lastly  in  helping  to 
prepare  Christmas  bakery  and  Easter 
eggs.  The  gardening  was  restricted  in 
autumn,  because  of  very  unfavourable 
weather,  to  the  gathering  of  seeds,  to  v 
planting  of  flowers  and  bulbs  in  pots  ano 
also  in  the  garden  where  they  had  to  be 
protected  from  the  frost  by  covering 
them  with  earth.  The  pots  were  taken 
out  of  the  ground  in  spring  and  the 
flowers  proved  for  weeks  the  most  beauti- 
ful decoratio"  of  the  school-room.  In 
summer,  besides  attending  to  their  own 
flowers,  the  children  worked  in  the  garden 
of  the  eighth  grade  under  the  supervision 
of  the  girls  of  this  grade.  The  teacher 
was  very  well  pleased  with  the  results 
of  this  association  of  the  smaller  children 
with  the  older  girls.  Both  old  and  young 
in    this    industrial    community    shov-cil 


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1 04  Appendix 

equal  enthusiasm  and  equal  pleasure, 
and  the  educative  value  for  the  eighth- 
grade  girls  was  undoubtedly  great. 

b.  Arithmetic. 

Care  was  taken  here  that  every  child 
should  have  actual  objects   so  that  he 
could   work    independently    with    these. 
Of  course  from  the  very  beginning  stress 
was  laid  upon  the  fact  that  the  child 
should  not  merely  guess  at  results  but 
should  take  the  greatest  pains  in  counting 
or  measuring  exactly,  and  by  these  means 
develop    his    simple    number    concepts. 
To  carry  through  the  principle  of  indus- 
trial training  in  arithmetic  we  made  use 
of  cardboard  discs,  buttons,  little  sticks, 
bobbins,    strings   of  beads,    copper   and 
nickel  coins  in  purses  made  by  the  chil- 
dren themselves,  and   so  on.     Of  course 
all    the    manual    activity    in   woodwork 
with  its  perpetual  judging,  measuring  and 
comparing  was  of  immense  value. 
c.  Writing  —  Reading. 
As  preparation  for  writing  we  followed 


Appendix 


105 


Montessori  in  using  geometrical  forms. 
The  children  practised  drawing  their 
pencil  round  these  forms.  The  resulting 
form  had  then  to  be  carefully  coloured. 
By  these  means  the  children  got  the  habit 
of  observing  carefully  these  outlines  and 
of  paying  attention  to  the  exact  copying 
of  the  form  and  trying  to  draw  it  cor- 
rectly. Thus  they  slowly  mastered  the 
writing  movements  of  the  hand  and  the 
work  was  not  complicated  by  making  them 
learn  the  more  difficult  letter  forms. 
After  this  the  letter  cases  made  by  Super- 
intendent Schmid  were  freely  used  for 
the  self-activity  of  the  children.  The 
teaching  of  the  particular  letter  was 
carried  out  in  some  such  manner  as  this  : 
The  letter  to  be  learned  was  slowly 
written  on  the  blackboard,  the  children 
paying  attention  to  every  movement. 
They  had  then  to  find  the  letter  in  the 
letter  case,  and  copy  it  as  big  as  possible 
upon  unruled  paper.  They  were  told  to 
touch  it  and  to  run  their  fingers  round 


io6 


Appendix 


^i 


i^ih ' 


it  until  It  was  perfectly  familiar  to  them. 
The  preliminary  exercises  were  followed 
by  writing  the  letters  upon  the  large 
blackboards  that  covered  three  sides  of 
the  school-room.  Each  child  was  al- 
lowed a  certain  amount  of  blackboard 
space.  This  work  was  then  corrected, 
all  the  children  trying  to  find  mistakes. 
Only  after  this  was  each  child  allowed  to 
work  Independently  in  his  notebook  or 
on  his  slate.  Hand  in  hand  with  these 
exercises  went  reading  and  spelling. 
These  latter  were  usually  taught  in  this 
fashion :  New  sentences  were  written  in 
printed  characters  upon  one  of  the  black- 
boards by  the  teacher.  The  children 
translated  these  printed  characters  into 
written  characters  with  the  help  of  the 
letter  case.  Then  they  wrote  the  sen- 
tence by  heart  into  their  notebooks. 
The  reading  primer  was  read  through  and 
thoroughly  understood  by  the  middle  of 
May,  so  that  for  the  last  two  months  of 
the  school  year  the  children  were  given 


Appendix  107 

a  first  reading-book  which  they  used  with 
great  enjoyment.  At  first  they  had  some 
difficulty  with  the  stories  printed  in 
fairly  small  type. 

d.  Catholic  Religious  Instruction. 

The  religious  instruction  had  to  con- 
form to  the  official  schedule  for  the  first 
grade.    The    principle    of    self-activity 
within  these  limits  was   carried  out  as 
far  as   possible.     In   the   object   lessons 
pertaining  to  liturgy  this  was  possible 
in  the  real  sense  of  the  term.     Liturgical 
objects  and  actions  were  seen  and  studied 
during   repeated   visits   to   St.   Joseph's 
Church.     Various    objects,    such    as    an 
altar,  manger  cross,  flag,  sepulchre,  etc. 
were  drawn  by  the  children.     The  litur- 
gical   actions    were    imitated   partly    in 
play   and   partly   in  all   seriousness,  e.g 
the  adoration  of  the  Infant  Christ,  the 
stations  of  the  cross,  the  mass,  etc.     Re- 
ligious-ethical instruction  was  combined 
with  all  the  experiences  of  the  child  (at 
home,  on  the  streets,  in  the  school  and 


i  '■ 


io8 


Appendix 


r  I 


on  the  playground).  In  regard  to  the 
teaching  of  prayers,  stress  was  laid  upon 
real  prayer  and  not  upon  mere  memorizing. 
The  teaching  of  the  Bible  stories  was 
made  realistic  by  dramatizing  them  as 
much  as  possible  and  assigning  parts 
among  the  children. 

e.  Gymnastics. 

Twenty  minutes  were  devoted  to  this 
every  day.  Twice  this  fell  in  the  after- 
noon, on  Monday  and  Thursday;  on 
all  the  other  days  it  was  in  the  forenoon. 
The  forenoon  exercises  proved  a  welcome 
interruption  and  prevented  the  possibility 
of  mental  fatigue.  In  the  afternoons 
such  exercises  were  practised  as  would 
develop  the  will  power  of  the  children, 
i.e.  exercises  for  the  correct  holding  of 
the  body,  competitive  games  and  races. 

In  the  forenoons  running,  singing  and 
imitation  games  were  generally  played. 
Many  of  the  imitation  games  were  made 
up  by  the  children  themselves  and  often 
stood  in  some  kind  of  a  connection  with 


Appendix  109 

their  lessons.  I  give  the  children's  names 
for  some  of  these  games:  "My  flowers 
are  thirsty,"  "Street  traffic,"  "Keep  to 
the  right,"  "War,"  etc. 

/.  Singing. 

The  songs  were  chosen  in  connection 
with  the  subject  treated  of  in  the  object 
lessons.  To  give  a  clear  understanding 
of  rhythm,  the  children  had  to  find 
out  the  time  of  the  songs  by  hearing 
the  teacher  sing  them. 

The  above  sketch  is  merely  an  example 
of  one  way  of  organizing.  Other  school 
conditions  would  lead  to  other  ways  of 
organization.  All  ways  are  good  so  long 
as  we  keep  to  the  principles  laid  down 
in  the  text.  And  yet  principles  and 
methods  mean  little  if  the  teacher  is 
not  filled  with  the  spirit  of  the  indus- 
trial school.  He  must  have  been  ac- 
customed to  work  up  and  use  his  own 
intellectual  material;  he  must  be  able 
to  overcome  his   own   .'azy  nature  and 


\  ^' 


I  lO 


Appendix 


must  press  forward  with  inexhaustible 
persistence  filled  with  the  love  of  knowl- 
edge; he  must  also  have  a  deep  insight 
into  the  workings  of  the  child's  mind  — 
an  insight  which  our  normal  school 
psychology  unfortunately  cannot  give  us. 
If  he  has  not  these  things,  then  the  idea 
of  the  industrial  school  will  remain  for 
him  an  eternal  riddle. 


T^HE  following  pages  contain  adverrisemenu  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  boob  on  kindred  subjects 


The  Philosophy  of  Education 

By  HERMAN  HARRELL  HORNE,  Ph.D. 

ProfeMor  of  the  History  of  Philosophy  and  of  the  Hiatoiy  of  Education, 

New  York  Univenity 

Cioth,  8vo,  xvii-{-agj  pages,  $/,jo  tut 

A  connected  series  of  discuuions  on  the  foundations  of  education  in 
the  rehited  sciences  of  biology,  physiology,  sociology,  and  philosophy,  and 
a  thr  roughgoing  interpretation  of  nature,  place,  and  meaning  of  education 
in  our  world.  The  newest  points  of  view  in  the  realm  of  natund  and 
mental  science  are  applied  to  the  understanding  of  educational  problems. 
The  field  of  education  is  carefully  divided,  and  the  total  discussion  is  de- 
voted to  the  philosophy  of  education,  in  distinction  from  its  history, 
science,  and  art. 

The  Psychological  Principles  of  Education 

By  HERMAN  HARRELL  HORNE,  Ph.D. 

Clotk,  lamo,  xiii+43j  pages,  f^-7S  »*/ 

The  relationship  of  this  book  to  the  author's  "  Philosophy  of  Educa- 
tion "  is  that,  whereas  the  first  was  mostly  theory  with  some  practice,  this 
is  mostly  practice  with  some  theory.  This  volume  lays  the  scientific 
foundations  for  the  art  of  teaching  so  far  as  those  foundations  are  con- 
cerned with  psychology.  The  author  is  the  "  middleman  "  between  the 
psychologist  and  the  teacher,  taking  the  theoretical  descriptions  of  pure 
psychology  and  transforming  them  into  educational  principles  for  the 
teacher.  In  the  Introduction  the  reader  gets  his  bearings  in  the  field  of 
the  science  of  education.  The  remainder  of  the  book  sketches  this  science 
from  the  standpoint  of  psychology,  the  four  parts  of  the  work,  Intellectual 
Education,  Emotional  Education,  Moral  Education,  and  Religious  Educa- 
tion, being  suggested  by  the  nature  of  man,  the  subject  of  education.  A 
special  feature  is  the  attention  paid  to  the  education  of  the  emotions  and 
of  the  wilL 

Idealism  in  ElduCatlOn   MaUncc^  Men  and  women 

By  HERMAN  HARRELL  HORNE,  Ph.D. 

Author  of  "The  Philosophy  of  Education"  and  '<The  Psychological 
Principles  of  Education  " 

Cb/A,  fjtmo,  xxi+i8j pages,  index,  $/^j  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

Professor  Home  here  discusses  three  things  which  he  regards  as  fun- 
damental in  the  building  of  human  character,  —  Heredity,  Environment, 
and  Will.  His  method  of  handling  these  otherwise  heavy  subjects  makes 
the  book  of  interest,  even  to  the  general  reader. 


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Education :  A  First  Book 


By  EDWARD  L.  THORNDIKE 

Profexsor  of  F  iucational  Psychology  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

Chtk,  timo,  a^  pages,  traj  tut 

This  book  furnishes  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  education.  It 
is  entitled  a  beginner^s  book.  It  is  intended  to  prepsu-e  students  in 
colleges  and  normal  schools  to  see  the  significance  of  their  more 
specialized  studies  in  educational  psychology  and  sociology,  methods 
of  teaching  and  class  management. 


Ii  !^ 


A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

By  GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Educational  Administration,  Formerly  Adjunct  Professor  of  Ele- 
mentary Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

Cloth,  latno,  jij  pages,  $fjj  net 

This  book  is  a  direct  outcome  of  experience  in  trying  to  help 
teachers  grow  in  skill  in  the  art  of  teaching  and  in  power  to  appreci- 
ate the  work  in  which  they  are  engagr  j.  The  problems  that  the 
teachers  face  day  after  day  in  the  classroom  are  treated  as  concretely 
as  possible.  Theories  of  education  have  not  been  discussed  at  any 
great  length,  but  rather  those  processes  through  which  these  funda- 
mental principles  find  their  expression  in  actual  teaching. 

Each  of  the  several  typical  methods  of  instruction  has  been  treated, 
and  the  validity  of  the  particular  practice  indicated  in  terms  of  the 
end  to  be  accomplished,  as  well  as  the  technique  to  be  used.  Since 
the  technique  of  the  teaching  method  is  not  the  only  element  in  de- 
termining the  efficiency  of  the  teacher,  there  is  included  a  discussion 
of  those  other  aspects  of  the  teacher^s  work  which  determine  the 
contribution  that  is  made  by  the  teacher  to  the  education  of  children. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

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By  JESSIE  H.  BANCROFT 

AMbteat  Director  Pbjrtical  Tndnlng,  Public  Schoob,  New  York  Qtyt 
&.SecreUry  American  Phyicd  Eduction  A-ocUtlon;   Mmb«  ^' 
American  Aaociation  for  the  Advancement  ot  Science- 
Author  of  "School  Gymnaitica."  ^Game*  for  the 
Flaygroood,  Home,  Scbwol,  and  Gymnuium,"  etc. 

The  Posture  of  School  Children 

With  its  Home  Efficiency  and  New  Efficiency 
Methods  for  School  Training 

The  aim  of  the  book  is  to  aid  parents  and  teachers  to  Improve  the 

r^u'^^v.  ?'*'"•  '^'"  ^*""*  '°  ■''''**^«  "**  ^°^  »»»«  ~"«ct  position 
in  childhood  is  the  cause  of  far-reaching  harm.  Many  disturbances,  both 
acute  and  chronic,  are  directly  traceable  to  poor  posture  and  carriage. 
The  application  of  pedagogical  principles  to  the  training  of  children  in 
correct  habiu  of  posture  and  a  working  description  of  some  of  the  new 
efficiency  methods  practiced  in  schools  for  the  purpose  of  obUining  correct 
posture  are  authoritatively  presented  and  applied. 

Oames  for  the  Playground,  Home, 
School,  and   Gymnasium 

Decor aUd  chtk,  giU  top,  $  i^o  tut 

These  games  have  been  coUected  from  many  countries  and  sources 
with  a  view  to  securing  novel  and  interesting  as  weU  as  thoroughly  tried 
and  popular  material.  They  range  from  the  traditional  to  the  modem 
gymnasium  and  athletic  games. 

The  material,  aside  from  that  accumulated  through  long  experience 
m  teaching  and  supervision,  has  been  collected  through  special  original 
research,  which  has  resulted  not  only  in  a  variety  of  new  plays  but  in  new 
ways  of  pUying  old  games  that  add  greaUy  to  their  play  value 


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■!i 


^i 


A  Cyclopedia  of  Education 

Editid  by  PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D. 

ProfcMor  of  the  History  of  Education,  Tescben  College,  Columbi*  Uni- 

verity :  Author  of  "A  Text  Book  in  the  History  of  Education," 

•*  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education,"  etc 

The  need  of  such  work  is  evidenced :  by  the  great  mast  of  varied 
educational  literature  showing  an  equal  range  in  educational  practice  and 
theory;  by  the  growing  importance  of  the  school  as  a  social  institution, 
and  the  fuller  recognition  of  education  as  a  social  process;  and  by  the 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers  and  the  instability  of  tenure 
which  at  the  same  time  marks  the  profession. 

The  men  who  need  it  arc:  all  teachers,  professional  men,  editors, 
ministers,  legislators,  all  public  men  who  deal  with  large  questions  of 
public  welfare  intimately  connected  with  education  —  every  one  who  ap- 
preciates the  value  of  a  reference  work  which  will  give  him  the  outlines 
of  any  educational  problem,  the  suggested  solutions,  the  statistical  infor- 
mation,  and  in  general  the  essential  facts  necessary  to  its  comprehension. 

Among  '.he  departmental  Editors  associated  with  Dr.  Monroe  are  Dr. 
Elmer  E.  Brown,  President  New  York  University;  Prof.  E.  F.  Buchner, 
of  Johns  Hopkins;  Dr.  Wm.  U.  Burnham,  Oark  University:  M.  Gabriel 
Compayre,  Inspector-General  of  Public  Instruction,  Paris,  France;  Prof. 
Wilhelm  Munch,  of  Berlin  University,  Gem»ny;  Prof.  John  Dewey,  of 
Columbia  University;  Dr.  Ellwood  P.Cubberly,  Stanford  University,  Cal.; 
Prof.  Foster  Watson,  of  the  University  College  of  Wales;  Dr.  David 
Snedden,  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  State  of  MassacbusetU;  and 
others. 


Canute  in  five  large  octavo  vdumes,  each  $5.00  net 


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